Fever Tree

September 17, 2024 ~ millennialmatriarchs ~ Leave a comment

Clay tablets from Mesopotamia mention this deadly disease. Indian writings of the Vedic period (1500 to 800 BC) call it the ‘king of diseases.’ Traces of the disease have been found in remains of bodies from Egypt dating from 3200 and 1304 BC. The 270 BC Chinese medical canon has documented the disease’s headaches, chills, fevers and periodicity. The Greek poet Homer (circa 750 BC) mentions it in The Iliad, as do Aristotle (384-322 BC), Plato (428-347 BC), and Sophocles (496-406 BC) in their works.

The disease? None other than malaria, a disease that has taken its toll on not only humans down the ages, but our Neanderthal ancestors too. In the 20th century alone, malaria claimed between 150 million and 300 million lives, accounting for 2 to 5 per cent of all deaths!

Many have been the scientists who spent their lives trying to understand malaria. Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran (1845-1922) a French army doctor during the Franco-Prussian played a key role. He as the first to postulate that malaria was not spread by bad air, but rather that ‘Swamp fevers are due to a germ’. He was also the earliest scientist to detect crescent-shaped bodies in the blood of affected individuals, and then the four stages of the development of the parasite in the blood. These findings were confirmed by Camillo Golgi. Dr. Charles Ross and India played a huge part in the unravelling of the whole cycle and Ross received the Nobel Prize for discovering the mosquito-stages of malaria.

The story of uncovering the cure for malaria has been dramatic too. For centuries, when no one had a clue what caused malaria, treatments included blood-letting, inducing vomiting, and drastic things like limb amputations, and boring holes in the skull. Herbal medicines like belladonna were used to provide symptomatic relief.

Cinchona-nitida-quinine — *Cinchona Tree whose Bark yields Quinine*

But the cure strangely came from South America—a region not originally plagued with the diease. It was probably brought from the outside around the 16^th century. The native Indians were the first to discover the cure. The story goes that an Indian with a high fever was lost in the Andean jungles. Desperate with thirst as he wandered the jungles, he drank from a pool of stagnant water. The taste was bitter and he thought he had been poisoned. But miraculously, he found his fever going down. On observation, he found that the pool he had drunk from had been contaminated by the surrounding quina-quina trees. He put two and two together, and figured that the tree was the cure. He shared his serendipitous discovery with fellow villagers, who thereafter used extracts from the quina-quina bark to treat fever. The word spread widely among the locals.

It was from them that Spanish Jesuit missionaries in Peru learnt about the healing power of the bark between 1620 and 1630, when one of them was cured of malaria by the use of the bark. The story goes that the Jesuits used the bark to treat the Countess of Chinchon, the wife of the Viceroy who suffered an almost fatal attack. She was saved and made it her mission to popularize the bark as a treatment for malaria, taking vast quanitities back to Europe and distributing it to sufferers. And from then, the use of the powder spread far and wide. It is said that it was even used to treat King Louis XIV of France.

The tree from which the bark came was Cinchona, a genus of flowering plants in the family Rubiaceae which has at least 23 species of trees and shrubs. These are native to the tropical Andean forests. The genus was named so after the Countess of Chinchon, from the previous para. The bark of several species in the genus yield quinine and other alkaloids, and were the only known treatments against malaria for centuries, hence making them economically and politically important. It was only after 1944, when quinine started to be manufactured synthetically, that the pressure on the tree came down.

Not unusually, the tribe who actually discovered it is forgotten. The medicine came to be called “Jesuit Powder’ or ‘Chincona powder’ or “Peruvian powder’. Trees in the genus also came to be known as fever trees because they cured fever.

May the many indigenous community, their knowledge and their practices which are at the base of so many medicines today get their due recognition, credit and due.

–Meena

Private Gardens for Public Pleasure

September 10, 2024 ~ millennialmatriarchs ~ Leave a comment

Last week, we delved into the making of the Butchart Garden in Victoria, Canada—a private garden which is completely open to the public. This is not common. For the most part, public gardens are public, and private gardens are private—open only to the enjoyment of the owners, their families and friends.

A public garden is defined by the American Public Gardens Association as: “An institution that maintains collections of plants for the purposes of public education and enjoyment, in addition to research, conservation, and higher learning. It must be open to the public and the garden’s resources and accommodations must be made to all visitors. Public gardens are staffed by professionals trained in their given areas of expertise and maintain active plant records systems.”

On the other hand, a private garden is ‘a type of Urban Green Spaces Areas in immediate vicinity of private (privately owned or rented) houses, cultivated mainly for ornamental purposes and/or non-commercial food production’ and is not usually open to the public.

While Jennie Butchart, creator of the Butchart Gardens was clear right from the start that she wanted as many people as possible to see and enjoy her gardens, not all owners have been so open. Or even if they wanted to, didn’t know how to go about it. But that would be such a loss, because some of these private gardens are spectacular.

And hence, the various initiatives in many parts of the world which try to make private gardens accessible to the public.

For instance, in the US, the Garden Conservancy organizes Open Day programmes. This institution is a nationwide community of gardeners and garden enthusiasts who teach and learn about gardens. Believing that there is no better way to improve as a gardener than by seeing and experiencing firsthand a wide range of gardens, they organize these Open Days, which since 1995, have seen ‘more than 1.4 million visitors into thousands of inspired private landscapes—from urban rooftops to organic farms, historic estates, to innovative suburban lots—in 41 states’. These events are curated and ticketed and open up some of America’s best private gardens to the public for a few days. The organization even brings out an annual publication—‘The Garden Conservancy’s Open Days Directory’ This is a yearly guide to hundreds of private gardens across the United States. The directory includes information on the gardens’ types, such as organic, scenic, or historic, and how and when they can be visited.

In the UK, London Parks & Gardens organizes the Open Gardens London event every year, helping visitors enjoy hallowed private London gardens including roof gardens, city farms, allotments, spaces steeped in history, and much more. A ticket to the event gives visitors access to every garden on display across the whole weekend, with children under 12 allowed in for free!

Under the Open Gardens South Australia programme, garden owners generously open their gardens for a weekend. The NGO helps owners plan and promote their opening. Some of the ticket money is usually donated to a charity of the owner’s choice

In Ireland, the Gardens Open initiative of Garden.ie lists around 300 gardens open for visiting, some year-round, others by appointment.

The Rashtrapati Bhavan gardens, previously known as the Mughal Gardens are not private. However, they are not open to the public all the time. Constructed by Sir Edwin Lutyens in 1917 in the traditional Persian Charbagh style the Gardens were renamed Amrit Udyan in 2023. The 12-acre beautifully cultivated gardens are open to visitors in Feb-March and Aug-Sept every year and a popular tourist spot in New Delhi.

India has some large public gardens, but no well-known large private gardens—certainly none open to the public. Maybe it is time for some people with the means and the green thumbs to create such green oasis in our crowded, polluted, frantic cities. That would be social responsibility indeed!

–Meena

Mangroves: Straddling Land and Sea

July 25, 2024 ~ millennialmatriarchs ~ Leave a comment

Vaulting strut roots crisscross one another, spikes of air breathing roots project from the mud, water casts a silvery shimmer on the underside of leaves…endless changing patterns. David Attenborough

Among the sandy and rocky shores of estuaries and muddy sea coasts, in places where any other tree would perish as a seedling, beneath daily tides and a salty diet, lives a special type of tree. These are the mangroves. There are many species of mangroves, but all are united by a common property: their tolerance to salt.

What makes these trees salt-resistant? Some mangroves take in sea water, extract the salt with special glands and secrete it from their leaves. Others have roots that filter out most of the salt even as it enters the tree. The remaining salt is stored in the oldest leaves of the tree—those that are about to fall. Thus the salt does little harm.

Mangrove trees have to adapt not only to living in salt water, but also to growing in continually shifting sandy soil which gives little scope for the trees to get a firm hold. Mangroves anchor themselves to the soil by sending out long roots from trunk and branches. These act as stilts to support the tree and prevent it from toppling over. The muddy water where they live contains very little oxygen, but the mangroves have an ingenious solution to this problem too. The trees send out a second air-breathing root system—not downwards, but poking up above the mud, like the snorkel of a diver!

The offspring of the mangroves are as remarkable as their parents. The seeds of most mangroves germinate on the tree, producing a pointed stem about a foot long, with roots and leaves just formed. If the juvenile plant drops into the water at low tide, the stem plummets into the mud below, and is ready to take root immediately. If the young plant is washed out to sea, it may eventually hit land—a sand bar or coral reef, and start to grow there. Someday, given the right conditions, this mangrove and its own offspring could start a mangrove swamp of their own.

In addition to the props that come down and the roots that poke up, the tangled roots at the base of the mangrove trap the silt and debris from the sea, as well as the trees’ own fallen leaves. Over time, this accumulation helps to create more land area around the mangrove trees. And a new habitat is created.

Mangrove swamps perform a very important role for the land and the ocean that they straddle. They provide vital breeding grounds and habitats for a wide variety of fish and crustaceans. The nutrient-rich soil provides food and shelter to innumerable organisms, including monkeys, deer and birds, and a source of nectar for honeybees. The fallen leaves provide shelter to tiny shelled creatures. Floating mangrove leaves provide a base for larval growth and micro fauna. The rotting leaves provide food for insects, reptiles and shellfish. These smaller creatures form food for the larger creatures that live or pass through the swamps. Many fish-eating birds come here for the abundant food and shelter. Mangroves support complex communities, where thousands of other species interact. It is a world teeming with biodiversity.

Mangroves also ensure food security for human beings. By sustaining fisheries and through the numerous forest produce they provide, mangroves also sustain local communities with food and livelihoods.

Mangroves nurture the seas and protect the land. Mangroves act as a form of natural coastal defence: reducing erosion, attenuating waves (including tsunamis) and reducing the height of storm surges. They protect coral reefs, sea grass beds and shipping lanes against siltation. They help control floods by catching and spreading high velocity flood waters and trap it amongst their roots. Thus they protect coastlines from erosion and extreme weather events, and contribute to water quality by filtering out nutrients and sediments. Mangrove soils are highly effective carbon sinks. They are among the most carbon-rich tropical ecosystems globally, and can contain more carbon per square metre than tropical rainforests. They also fight climate change – with global mangrove forests sequestering as much as 22.8 million tons of carbon each year.

Healthy mangrove ecosystems are vital for the wellbeing, food security, and protection of coastal communities worldwide. Mangroves are among the world’s most dynamic ecosystems, but increasing encroachment by development and industry means they are also among the most at risk.

All over the world mangroves are being degraded at an alarming rate. They are being destroyed at rates 3-5 times greater than average rates of forest loss. Multiple pressures are destroying these unique ecosystems which perform vital functions for both the terrestrial and marine habitats that they nurture and protect.

Mangroves are exploited, directly or indirectly, for food, timber, medicines, honey, charcoal, and fisheries. There is tremendous pressure on the areas where they grow due to increasing population and its demands. One of the main threats to mangroves is from habitat destruction for coastal development and aquaculture. Mangroves have been converted into salt pans, aquaculture ponds or paddy fields. Rising sea levels are a longer-term challenge.

Pollution and over-exploitation are also reducing the ecosystem services provided by mangroves. Changes in local water conditions caused by upstream dams, irrigation and pollution have led to the loss of many mangroves. Mangroves are often used for dumping waste, including plastics that do not degrade, harming both these ecosystems and the species living there. The accumulation of marine debris can alter the physical and chemical composition of sediments.

Mangrove swamps are called ‘mangals’ in India. About 50 species of mangrove trees are found in our mangals. The maximum number of mangrove species have been reported from the Orissa coast. The best mangrove formations in India occur in the Sundarbans in the Bay of Bengal, and in the Andaman and Nicobar islands. The Sundarbans is believed to be the largest single block of tidal mangrove forests in the world where all the species of Indian mangroves are represented. Sundarbans has been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. However these unique ecosystems are under as much threat as those across the world.

The earth and humanity simply cannot afford to lose these vital ecosystems.

In recognition of this the General Conference of the UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has declared the International Day for the Conservation of the Mangrove Ecosystem to be celebrated on 26 July every year. The day aims to raise awareness of the importance of mangrove ecosystems as “a unique, special and vulnerable ecosystem” and to promote solutions for their sustainable management, conservation and uses. There are several international as well as national initiatives that are working towards these solutions. This day is a reminder of the pivotal role of mangroves in preserving ecosystems.

–Mamata

From the Botany Textbook to my Backyard

July 16, 2024 ~ millennialmatriarchs ~ Leave a comment

Our biology teacher tried her hardest to fill our brains with all kinds of information about plants, flowers, and creatures big and small. I am not sure how much of it stuck. But Rafflesia arnoldi was one of the plants that we studied about that all of the students were fascinated with, and I can still recall many details about it.

For after all, a parasitic plant is fascinating isn’t it? Especially when its blooms are the single largest individual flower in the world, and which emit an aroma similar to rotten meat? It is a parasitic plant that grows on vines of the genus Tetrastigma. It has no green photosynthetic tissues, leaves, stems or roots. It essentiallylives inside the Tetrastigma vines as a mass of strands which absorb water and nutrients from the host. It grows out of the host plant’s bark as brown, cabbage-like buds which bloom over several days. The flowers have five lobes, are reddish-brown with white spots, and grow up to 1 m across and may weigh up to 11 kg. The smell of rotten meat they emit attracts insects such as flies and beetles, and this helps in the pollination cycle.

We all dreamt of the day that we would travel to the wilds of Indonesia to see this plant.

Another parasitic plant, which we didn’t realize was parasitic, was the mistletoe. The books we read were generally by British authors, and the tradition of hanging up mistletoe during Christmas and kissing under it drew many a schoolgirl snigger. Readers of Asterix comics would recall Druid Getafix forever up on top of a tree cutting some plants with a golden sickle. This would be the mistletoe which was believed to have medicinal and magical powers. There are many species of mistletoe, which are parasites on a variety of hosts. Some species even parasitize other mistletoes, which in turn are parasitic on a host! Unlike Rafflesia, mistletoes are hemiparasites—they have chlorophyll and can make some of their own food.

Thanks to all these references, another ambition was to see miseltoe.

I have definitely not seen Rafflesia.

But I have had recent encounters of a mistletoe type in my own backyard.

The parijaat or coral-jasmine tree is the pride of my garden. Come July, the lawn is carpeted with the delicate, fragrant white blossoms with orange stalks. A few months ago, I saw another type of leaf among the parijaat leaves. I took it for a climber, though I could not see where it had originated from. I didn’t pay too much attention. Then I saw a different kind of flower on the tree, and was kind of happy, because these were rather pretty too, and I thought I had two beautiful flowers for the price of one.

But as l looked more closely, I became more and more perplexed. The climber was simply not rooted anywhere! I clumsily clambered up a stool to check out where the branches with the different leaves were originating from. And to my dismay I found that there were knots at various places on the parijaat branches, and each of them sprouted thin branches with these different leaves.

LeLeaves of Night-flowering Jasmine and Loranthus — *Leaves of Night-flowering Jasmine and Loranthus*

Consultations with experts has finally resulted in the conclusion that my poor parijaat is infested with the parasitic Loranthus. It belongs to Loranthaceae, the showy mistletoe family. So the ambition to see mistletoe has come true, though I am not happy about it!

Some species of Loranthus are parasites on cultivated trees, for example, on mango s, chiku and poplar trees. Though the books don’t say so, they obviously infect parijaat, and are also seen on my neighbour’s anar.

Loranthus grows on the branches and stems of other trees and obtains water and nutrients from the vascular tissues of the host plant. Birds like sunbirds and flowerpeckers spread the seeds after eating the berries, either by excreting them or wiping off the seeds from their bills, to the branches of neighbouring plants. Seeds germinate and sink parasitic haustorium (an attachment mechanism) into the branches of their host. Secondary haustoria are formed from the same parasitic plant wherever there is a contact with the host.

A parasite takes up the host tree’s water and mineral content and harms the host while the parasite gets benefitted. While most of these parasites don’t draw enough to kill the tree unless there is a serious drought or other drastic conditions, the host does weaken.

I have had all the branches with Loranthus knobs pruned. Apparently, the huastoria spread quite deep, so fairly drastic surgery had to be performed on some branches.

I think my paarijaat is looking happier!

–Meena

Slugs and Snails

July 2, 2024 ~ millennialmatriarchs ~ Leave a comment

Snails: UGGGGG!

Slugs: UGGGGGGGGGGG!

Yes, that indeed is the normal reaction. Both of these creatures are gastropods, a type of mollusk. They are both soft-bodied creatures which are covered with mucus—and it is this which usually makes people go ‘UGGGG’. But they need the mucous to stop them from drying out.

Gardeners hate them too, because some species of slugs and snails (S&S) feed on live plant material. These species are particularly fond of eating soft fleshy leaves and seedlings. Some slugs which stay underground tunnel holes in potatoes and other tubers. Snails and slugs are sporadic pests in those places where damp conditions prevail.

And yes, there are worrisome trends too. Some species of exotic snails and slugs can destroy native biodiversity and multiply madly. They have no natural predators when they travel out of their native lands, and so thrive.

In India, 1500 species of land snails have been reported, but the number of species of slugs is limited. Of these, nine species of snails and 12 species of slugs are pests, including the Giant African Snail, which is a serious problem with regards to fruits, vegetables and ornamental plants specially in the east, northeast and south; the common snail, Helix spp. ; the common garden snail; and the black slug.

These gastropod-pests are a worldwide problem. For instance, the Giant African Snail is native to East Africa. But it has spread to many, many parts of the world, either by stowing away on ships, or being deliberately brought to other countries for experiments, as pets etc. And wherever it has travelled, it is creating problems– over 500 plant species may be targeted by the giant African snail, including most vegetables, legumes, ornamental plants, banana, citrus, etc.

But wait! Before we condemn them outright, we must understand that slugs and snails are generally beneficent to the environment and have a key role to play in the ecosystems, as they are recyclers, feeding on dead leaves, dung and sometimes even on dead animals. They play a useful role in composting. And as important, they are an important food source for birds, beetles and reptiles.

And in recent years, the fashion world has taken to these gastropods in a big way. Snail mucin and slug slime have become popular in the world of beauty. Gastropod slime has been shown to have many beneficial properties–antibacterial, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant, anti-tumoral, anti-aging, tissue regeneration, wound healing etc. Snail mucin contains antioxidants that may help reduce signs of aging like wrinkles, uneven skin tone and sagging. Studies indicate that snail mucin helps with skin regeneration and protects against damaging free radicals.

And let us also recognize that the seriously devastating snails and slugs are often introduced exotic species. There is never anything fundamentally ‘wrong’ about any species. They fit and have a role in the ecosystem where they have evolved. But a species can be in the ‘wrong place’, and then they can cause devastation.

So yes, it is up to us humans to ensure S&S stay where they belong, and don’t travel.

But there is no doubt people, especially gardeners don’t like them. And this is why a wildlife NGO in the UK, The Herts and Middlesex Wildlife Trust and Royal Horticultural Society (RHS) want to challenge negative perceptions. The organisers want to create a positive image for snails and slugs by showing people how they contribute to ecosystems. Campaign organisers hope that by learning to “appreciate and co-exist” with snails and slugs, gardeners can adopt a more environmentally friendly approach. The trust, with the RHS, has produced a guide with tips to “live harmoniously alongside slugs and snails”.

And here is some S&S Trivia

Slugging is a slang term for a skin care technique that involves applying an occlusive moisturizer to one’s face, typically before sleep, primarily as a way to prevent moisture loss.

Slugging-it-out is to fight, argue, or compete with someone until one person wins.

Sluggish isbeing lazy and slow.

Sluggish in the computer world is when you use human-readable terms in a URL instead of a database number or some other form. It supposedly originated when programmers became too “lazy” to look up a proper code or ID for a website, and began naming them using words. Those “lazy URLs” became slugs.

And FYI: Snails move at a pace of 0.029 miles per hour, or 153 ft per hour. If we convert that to human speed, that’s the equivalent of walking almost 3.2 km per hour. Not too bad! So in this too, it seems snails are getting unnecessary flak!

S&S are nice fellows. Let’s not blame our problems on them!

-Meena

Crabby, Crabby…

June 25, 2024 ~ millennialmatriarchs ~ Leave a comment

At the moment–June 22 to July 22—we are in the zodiac sign of Cancer. The sign is called Cancer from the Greek word for crab. Cancer constellation represents the giant crab that attacked Hercules during the second of his twelve labours. It was sent by the goddess Hera to distract Hercules as he battled the water serpent Hydra. Hercules ended up killing the giant crab with his club. In the skies, the crab constellation is a medium-sized one which has ten suns with their own planets.

Down on earth, crabs are members of the animal group called crustaceans—creatures which mostly live in water, have a hard shell, a segmented body, and jointed appendages. Lobsters, shrimps, barnacles are also members of this group. Crabs have five pairs of legs. The first pair has large pinching claws that help with feeding and defence. Three pairs help the crab walk, and last pair may be broad and flattened to serve as paddles for crabs that swim. Though crabs can walk forwards, they generally walk sideways. This is because they have stiff, jointed legs, and find it easier and faster to walk sideways.

There are at least 7,000 species of crab, and they can be found in all oceans and in fresh water. Some crabs even live on land, often several miles from water. They come in a great range of sizes from tiny pea crabs measuring about 2.5 centimeters across, to the giant crab of Japan which may span over 30 centimeters across and measure 4 meters from tip to tip of its stretched out legs.

Some types, including the blue crab, the Dungeness crab, and the king crab, are often eaten by humans. But apart from their nutritional value to humans, and economic value as a major industry, they play a key role in the ecosystem. They are vital food sources for sea animals. The smaller ones recycle nutrients as filter feeders, and the larger ones serve as food for large aquatic mammals. Terrestrial crustaceans are important because they are decomposers of dead organisms. Small crustaceans eat substantial amounts of algae keeping the plant in check, which helps keep the water clear and ensures that sea-grass beds can access to light and oxygen.

India has about 125 species of crabs. The Western Ghats alone, a biodiversity hotspot, is home to 75 species. A new species was discovered here as recently as 2022.

Belonging to Ghatiana genus of fresh water crabs, the new species is called ‘Ghatiana dvivarna’, the name being a combination of the Sanskrit words dvi (two) and varna (colour). The crab is a beautiful white and red-violet.

All this information is very important. But surely there could be more interesting ways to present it?

That is what the Crab Museum in Margate UK tries to do! This museum’s objective is ‘to roll science, humour and philosophy into a unique and satisfyingly baffling day out’! The founders of the museum believe that ‘“’everyone learns better when they’re laughing’”’, and take a goofy approach to their displays. And it seems to be working! The Museum saw over 80,000 visitors last year, and parents report that their children are more engaged here than in many other conventional institutions.

The dioramas, exhibits, text-labels are all planned with humour in mind, even as they are informing the viewers about crab anatomy, mating habits and the importance of these creatures to marine ecosystems. But the Museum goes further—it uses crabs as an entry point to discussing bigger issues, including environmental issues, climate change, capitalism and colonialism.

Other museums are taking note of these unconventional approaches. As reported in the New York Times, ‘Chris Stringer, of the Natural History Museum in London, said in an email that the museum’s silly approach leads to learning “by stealth.” It “teaches more in a small space and short time than many others with far larger budgets.’

We may not be able to visit the Crab Museum at Margate but crab-lovers can participate in their annual Crab Joke Competition. Last year, there were 700 entries, so the competition is quite stiff. One of the top shortlists was:

Why did the crab get bad grades? Because it was below C level!

Jokes apart, we must be aware that various environmental dangers beset crabs. Research says about one-sixth of all freshwater crab species have an elevated risk of extinction, and there are any number of ‘threats to marine species, including illegal and unsustainable fishing, pollution, climate change and disease’.

So in this month of Cancer, let’s spare a thought for crabs and their well-being.

–Meena

Pic acknowledgement: TOI

AJT Johnsingh: The Highest Standards of Wildlife Research

June 11, 2024 ~ millennialmatriarchs ~ 1 Comment

A few days ago came the sad news of Dr. AJT Johnsingh’s passing. And for once, mainstream media covered this event—from AIR to Times of India to Hindu to several other national and regional papers.

For media to so widely cover the passing of a wildlife researcher is sure indication that there was something special about him. And indeed there was. He was one of India’s best and most respected field researchers. And even more, he put all that knowledge into practice in conservation. He strongly believed that knowledge should not lie in books, but be used to develop better policies and practices to support conservation on the ground.

Born to teachers who were both nature-lovers and outdoor people, he grew up in a small town called Nanguneri in Tirunelveli district of Tamil Nadu. His parents encouraged him to be outdoors, and family outings generally meant picnics in the wilderness areas of the Western Ghats. They were early and important influences in his love for nature. Another source of inspiration was Jim Corbett, whom he read avidly when young, and whose approach to conservation he admired—it was an approach that was unsentimental, and doing what needed to be done, extending to killing maneaters when there was no other way out.

JC Daniel of BNHS whom he first met when trekking up in the Kalakad hills in 1971, and who mentored him at various stages in his career, was a great influence. George Schaller, American mammalogist, biologist, conservationist and author recognized by many as the world’s preeminent field biologist, studying wildlife throughout Africa, Asia and South America, was a role model for Johnsingh.

AJT went to St. Xavier’s College, Palayankottai, and then Madras Christian College, Tambaram. He started his career as a professor at Ayya Nadar Janaki Ammal College, Sivakasi, He worked as a postdoctoral fellow at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C. He returned to India in 1981 to work with the Bombay Natural History Society. In 1985, he joined the faculty of newly-established Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, and helped shape this premier institute which has developed the cadre of India’s current wildlife professionals. He retired as the Dean WII in 2005. In this period WII trained over 300 managers and several M.Sc Wildlife and PHD students.

He was the first Indian to carry out field research on free-ranging large wild mammals. He focussed particularly on the dhole (wild dog) in Indian forests. His research in the early years focused on the ecology and prey-predator relationships of dhole, other carnivores and ungulates in Bandipur National Park. His interest and research covered several large mammals, and his knowledge of many species saw him on the IUCN Asian Elephant Specialist Group, as well as the Cat, Canid, Bear, and Caprinae Specialist Groups. He also researched the Mahseer fish.

Tigers also fascinated him. He is credited with having taken the first good photo of a tiger in Bandipur. Talking about this photo in an interview to Sanctuary, he said: ‘ For years, no one had been able to take a clear picture of a tiger in Bandipur. Because my dhole study area was littered with tiger spoor, I always carried a camera around ‘just in case’. On May 23, 1978, around 7 a.m., I was sitting eight metres up on a mango tree in the Ministerguthi nullah, which was frequented by tigers whose pugmarks could easily be seen and whose spray markings, I could smell. I sat for around 45 minutes, barely breathing when a movement in the tall grass caught my eye. The tiger walked towards a clearing right in front of me and when it reached a patch of sunlight, I whistled and with a perplexed look on its face, it froze staring straight at me. But the moment it heard my camera shutter, it vanished. Interestingly, I cannot stop smiling whenever I see this picture.’

He authored several research papers, but what got him know widely across the general public where his three popular books: ‘Field Days: A Naturalist’s Journey through South and Southeast Asia’ (2005), ‘Walking the Western Ghats’ (2015) and ‘On Jim Corbett’s Trail and Other Tales From the Jungle’ (2018). He also edited two volumes of The Mammals of South Asia which in total has 69 chapters.

AJT was decorated with many honours including the Distinguished Service Award by the Society for Conservation Biology, the Carl Zeiss Wildlife Conservation Award, the ABN AMRO Sanctuary Lifetime Wildlife Service Award, ‘Kirloskar Vasundhara Sanman’ and Salim Ali Conservation Award.

The government also respected and valued his expertise. He was on the Standing Committee on the National Board for Wildlife, Government of India, and served for three years as a member of the National Tiger Conservation Authority. He was also a Padma Shri awardee. His voice, opinion and work contributed to the creation of wildlife areas including the Kalakkad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve.

We at CEE had the opportunity to interact with Dr. Johnsingh on different occasions when we sought his expertise on various projects. Two in which I was personally involved where he was on the Advisory Committee were the Snow Leopard Education project, and the ‘School Education to Support Asian Elephant Conservation’ project. In the days prior to Zoom and video calls, we could not get into discussions with him, but sent him drafts on which he gave his insightful comments.

The conservation world and India have lost a unique researcher and spokesperson who had the knowledge and courage to speak out, and the stature to be listened to. As a message from his family puts it: ‘The Green Warrior has landed safely in his Valhalla, after a war well fought, to save mother nature, for all mankind.’

And to end with a quote from him which underlines the spirit behind his research: “I used to ask questions about wildlife that no one could answer. So I began to search for answers myself by observing animals. Curiosity is the greatest trigger for good science.“

RIP, Dr. AJT Johnsingh. Your passing is personal loss to your family and friends, and as great a loss to the wildlife and environment you worked so hard to protect.

–Meena

Cicada Summer

May 30, 2024 ~ millennialmatriarchs ~ Leave a comment

In many countries, ranging from America to Japan, the song of the cicadas heralds summer. This summer, cicadas are making headlines in the United States which is bracing up for a cacophony of noise as trillions of cicadas are due to emerge in a rare synchronized event that occurs only once in a couple of hundred years.

Cicada species have been around for a long time. The oldest cicada fossils are from the Triassic period, where they may have buzzed around the dinosaurs. Cicadas are members of the superfamily Cicadoidea. A cicada has a stout body, a broad head with two large compound eyes on both sides, and clear-membraned wings. Cicadas have modified mouthparts to feed on liquids rather than solid material. Larvae suck juices from plant roots, while adults suck fluids from woody shrubs and trees. While all cicadas have the same basic body shape, they come in all sorts of sizes and colour.

The most defining feature of cicadas is not in their form but in the sound that the male cicadas make to attract female partners. This sound is produced by the movement of specialized structures on each side of the abdomen called tymbals. Tymbals are thin membranous structures streaked with marginally thicker ribs. A muscle pulls these ribs inward and then releases them, resulting in a sharp sound. Rapid repetition of this action at a speed of 300 to 400 times per second generates the distinctive song of the cicada. The cicada’s body is like a hollow musical instrument, similar to a violin or guitar, with air-filled pockets that act like echo chambers, amplifying the sound. Varying body sizes produce different sound frequencies. Each species has its own specific call. In answer to the male’s song, the female cicada replies with a soft click.

Despite having no vocal chords and no lungs, male cicadas are the loudest insects in the world. While poets may wax eloquent about the song of the cicada, the decibel level of the cicada chorus can be deafening. The intensity of the sound can be as high 120 decibels, the decibel level of a jet engine!

Cicadas have a fascinating lifecycle. The male attracts the female with his powerful song which reverberates through the air. The female arrives, and after the mating, she makes slits in tree branches and lays her eggs. The eggs hatch six to seven weeks later. The emerging young ones look like termites, and stay on the plant, feeding on sap till they are ready to drop down to the ground. This marks the beginning of the next stage of their lifecycle. Tunnelling through the earth with their powerful front legs, the nymphs burrow and build chambers deep in the soil, living a major part of their lives underground, feeding on roots, till they are finally ready to emerge as adults. Once they crawl back onto the surface, the nymphs shed their exoskeletons, and start flapping their wings. They spend the next six weeks or so of their adult life, making a cacophony to attract mates, so that the eggs can be laid before they die

This trait of disappearing distinguishes cicadas from most other insects. While all species of cicadas disappear underground, different species have different cycles of emergence. There are annual cicadas which emerge once a year, or once very couple of years, and periodical cicadas which spend most of their lives underground, and emerge, en masse every 13 or 17 years to mate and start the cycle over again. Of the 3,400 species of cicadas in the world, only nine species are known to have developed the habit of disappearing underground for years at a time and then emerging en masse simultaneously.

It is this cycle of disappearance and reappearance that has symbolically linked cicadas with rebirth and transformation in some cultures. In China during the Han Dynasty, jade cicadas were placed on the tongue as part of the burial ceremony to ensure that the departed have voices in their afterlife. Some Native American tribes believe that cicadas emerge from the earth, bringing with them an opportunity to renew their relationship with nature and their ancestors.

India has approximately 250 species of annual cicadas, but only one species of periodic cicada, the Chremista ribhoi in Meghalaya that emerges once in four years. Forests in all parts of India are abuzz with cicada sounds, especially before the rains begin, thus here cicadas are associated with the monsoon. A curious tale related to cicadas is that when, in 1847, an Englishman discovered a forest area in Kerala, he found it to be completely devoid of cicada sounds, and thus so quiet, that he named it Silent Valley.

This summer several parts of the United States will witness the once-in-lifetime phenomenon of the simultaneous emergence of billions of cicadas from two different broods of cicadas—one that lives a 13-year cycle and one that has a 17-year cycle. This rare synchronized event last occurred in 1803. This is causing much excitement among scientists as well as others, who will witness (as well as hear) this rare event—a cicada summer to remember!

–Mamata

Nature Education Pioneer: Anna Botsford Comstock

May 23, 2024 ~ millennialmatriarchs ~ Leave a comment

In 2005 a book titled Last Child in the Woods: Saving Our Children from Nature Deficit Disorder became a best-selling ‘bible’ for the environmental movement. In a society where an entire new generation of children was spending all their time indoors, hooked to virtual devices for entertainment, the book by Richard Louv rang alarm bells. It brought together research that indicated that this alienation from the natural world was creating a phenomenon called Nature Deficit Disorder, and urging that direct exposure to nature was essential for healthy childhood development, and for the physical and emotional health of children, as well as adults. The book spurred an international movement to connect children, families and communities to the natural world.

Today the value of direct exposure to the natural environment is recognized as an important input for a healthy life. Educational curricula at all levels are formally introducing opportunities for this, emphasising the need for learning-by-doing in natural settings. Not many today are aware that more than a century-and-a-half before this ‘trend’, there was a strong advocate for ‘connecting with nature’. She was Anna Botsford Comstock. Indeed, she may be called the pioneer of nature education.

Anna was more than this; a woman of many achievements. Born in 1854 in a Quaker family, Anna grew up in an environment which encouraged appreciation and exploration of the natural world. She spent her childhood on a farm which was largely self-sufficient, guided by her mother in observing different aspects of nature, and getting some formal education in a single teacher rural schoolhouse. A voracious reader, she grew up with the influence of the writings of Ralph Waldo Emerson, William Wordsworth and Henry David Thoreau. When she was 13 the family moved to a place closer to a town, where she graduated from high school. She then applied to Cornell University which had recently begun to admit women.

Anna Botsford was interested in English and history, but took a course in invertebrate zoology to balance her curriculum. As part of this she attended the lectures of a young entomologist John Henry Comstock, who encouraged her to cultivate her already strong interest in nature, as well as her skills as an illustrator. He also asked her to assist him in his research. The working partnership blossomed into romance and the two were married in1878. Anna had to discontinue her studies, when Henry was appointed chief entomologist for the U.S. Department of Agriculture, and they moved to Washington, D.C. where she also worked for the same department. Anna returned to Cornell to complete her degree, side-by-side with working in the lab, and graduated in 1885 with a Bachelor of Science degree.

Anna’s additional career as a nature educator began in the early 1890s. This was a period when there was a large migration of rural youth to urban areas in search for employment, leaving a shortage of labour in rural agricultural communities. One school of thought believed that if young people were taught to appreciate the wonders of nature, it would encourage them to stay on in their family farms, and also others to migrate to rural areas. This gave rise to the Nature Study Movement which began in New York and soon became a nationwide movement. Anna was attracted by this approach. She believed that ‘future citizens should be set on inheriting our Earth by learning of its environments, and of the interactions of the living systems therein’. Anna emphasized that children should discover their environment through the use of their five senses and careful observation. Through their own individual investigations, children could thereby cultivate a sense of connection and responsibility for our Earth. She began promoting nature study programmes in public schools throughout Westchester County, often leading lessons and training teachers in subjects related to the natural sciences.

Serendipitously, the Cornell College of Agriculture got a grant to carry out a pilot project under the Nature Study programme, and Anna plunged into this with passion and conviction. She continued to lecture and promote nature study in local schools as she had been doing. In order to reach a larger audience Anna began lecturing and training teachers at other institutions across the nation. She also wrote and published a series of Nature Study Leaflets that were distributed to schools and teaching programs. The Nature Study Leaflets were in fact succinctly written and beautifully illustrated Lesson Plans for self-led or teacher-guided instruction. Her detailed notes, language and observations were reminiscent of the writing of Henry David Thoreau who had been one of her early inspirations.

Anna began with botanical lessons, but soon included all species from microbes to mammals, as well as natural resources and ecosystems. The pedagogy encouraged the development of a child’s curiosity by “opening one’s eyes to our natural surroundings.” Having developed hundreds of such Nature Study Leaflets, Anna felt that it would be useful to compile these into a comprehensive manual. In 1909 she began work on this comprehensive manual which grew into a nearly 1000-page document. No commercial publisher was willing to publish it, so it was published by Anna and her husband. Published in 1911 as Handbook of Nature Study, the book was a huge success, going into over twenty reprints, and being translated into eight languages. It remains a timeless resource and continues to inspire new generations of nature lovers.

In 1899, Anna Comstock was made assistant professor of nature study at the Cornell University Extension Division, the first woman to hold the title of professor at Cornell. But conservative trustees objected to a woman professor, and her title was revoked. Instead, she was named as lecturer with the same salary. Anna did retire from Cornell University with full professorship in 1922. She continued to teach, lecture, and publish materials related to nature studies until she passed away in 1930.

Her pioneering Lesson Plans and her vision for nature education for children supported and inspired generations of students and teachers in nature study.

Anna was also a pioneer in advocating for introducing ‘nature study’ as part of the school curriculum. This continues to be a challenge even today; not many curricula have effectively integrated and infused this; nor accepted that nature study can plant the seeds of valuable life skills.

May 22 is marked as International day for Biological Diversity. A good day to remember Anna Botsworth Comford, one of the early advocates for celebrating biodiversity, and pioneers in biodiversity education.

–Mamata

Celebrating Tree-shapers: World Topiary Day

May 7, 2024 ~ millennialmatriarchs ~ Leave a comment

Have you seen deer walking across a traffic island in the middle of a crowded urban space? Or perhaps elephants in your city garden? Well, that is topiary.

Topiary, as per the Britannica, is ‘the training of living trees and shrubs into artificial, decorative shapes’. It is an ancient art, going back to the time of the Romans. In fact, Gaius Matius Calvinus, a contemporary of Julius Caesar is supposed to have been one of the first practitioners, and Caesar is said to have popularized it all over the Roman Empire.

There are three fundamental types of topiary:

Shrub topiary which consists of shrubs which are designed and shaped in various shapes and sizes. Very experienced gardeners do the cutting freehand, while others use frames.
Vine topiary, wherein vines and climbers are encouraged and shaped to grow in various topiary forms
Moss topiary where a frame is filled with wet moss and the chosen plant, and grown in the desired shape.

Whatever the type of topiary, it is an endeavour which requires ongoing work, care, patience and expertise

The fortunes of topiary have waxed and waned. After a long lull, the Italian Renaissance, which saw the flowering of many arts, also saw the revival of topiary. It became the rage in Italy, France (including in the Versailles), and with the Dutch and English. The British took to it with passion, and it was found not only in the homes of the rich and the famous, but also in the modest gardens of peasants and tradesmen. Imagination was the only limit, with ships, fantastical beasts and human figures, all roaming the lawns.

Till topiary went overboard. And it was the mighty pen which defeated the scissors. Alexander Pope wrote a satirical essay “Verdant Sculpture” criticizing over-the-top topiary, and as a result, by the 1720s and ‘30s, topiary fell out of favour and was cleared from most prominent English gardens. The Levens Hall Garden was one of the few which escaped, and is today the oldest topiary gardens, with 30,000 bedding plants carved in a variety of shapes.

Till topiary was again revived in the 1840s. Not at the same scale, but it became moderately popular.

In its own unique forms, topiary has been quite popular in Asia too. China and Japan have practiced it for many centuries, with the objective of helping the trees achieve their “natural” form. Even the popular bonsai is a form of topiary. Japanese Zen Gardens make extensive use of different topiary techniques.

In 2021, a new event, World Topiary Day, was created by the owners of one of the world’s oldest topiary gardens, the Levens Hall and Gardens in Cumbria, UK, which dates from 1694. World Topiary Day marked on May 12^th every year, celebrates ‘… the fantastic art of topiary (shaping and cutting particular types of tree into geometric shapes and forms that resemble common objects and people) and its heritage within the world of gardening’, and seeks to inspire ‘…keen gardeners and lovers of al fresco living to adopt topiary’s style and structure within their own private gardens.’

A new award for topiary has also been announced as recently as this year and the ‘…search is on for Britain’s best topiary artists thanks to the inaugural Topiary Awards, which are now open for entries until May 31.’

In India too, many gardens and public spaces have examples of topiary. But sadly, after the initial enthusiasm, they are not maintained well, and therefore go out of shape.

India is however home to the tallest topiary as per the Guinness Book of Records. This is the Samban-Lei-Sekpil in Manipur, started in 1983, which has now reached 18.6 m (61 ft) in height. The plant used is Duranta erecta, a shrub common in Manipuri gardens. It is shaped into a tiered structure called ‘sekpil’ that honours Umang Lei, the forest god.

Here is to tree-shapers, tree-barbers, tree-architects and their tribe, for adding green landmarks and a touch of whimsy to our lives.

–Meena