Category: history

Updating Anthems

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In this week of Republic Day, the tune of our national anthem and other patriotic songs are all around us. Without them, the mood cannot be built. Singing the national anthem together with neighbours, community, colleagues, fellow-students—there is nothing more symbolic of our oneness.

Anthems in general are rallying cries, rousing or uplifting songs identified with a country, section, cause etc. A national anthem is a solemn patriotic song officially adopted by a country as an expression of national identity.

These songs are our identity. But just as in so much else, should they change as contexts and realities change?

Well, five countries have taken the bold step of changing their anthems in recent years.

Australia: On Jan 1, 2021, Australia’s national anthem, “Advance Australia Fair,” underwent a significant change. The phrase “For we are young and free” in the second line was changed to “For we are one and free.”  This is an effort to respect the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, recognizing that Australia’s history precedes European settlers tens of thousands of years. It is a symbol of Australia’s commitment to unity and reconciliation with Indigenous population.

Austria: Austria’s national anthem is “Land der Berge, Land am Strome” (Land of Mountains, Land by the River). The language was reviewed and modified to promote gender inclusivity in 2021 . The original lyrics which referred to “great sons,” was changed to “great daughters and sons.”

Canada: In 2018, Canada made a significant and widely-welcomed change to its national anthem “O Canada” in 2018. The line “in all thy sons command” was changed to “in all of us command.” was changed to “in all of us command”, again an effort for gender-inclusivity.  

South Africa: Like the nation itself, South Africa’s national anthem is unique. It combines lines from several different languages and songs, including the hymn “Nkosi Sikelel’ iAfrika” and the former anthem “Die Stem van Suid-Afrika.” In recent times, small changes have been made to the anthem with the purpose to ensure proper pronunciation and inclusion of all languages and honour the linguistic heritage of all its people.

New Zealand: In 1977, the Government announced that New Zealand would have two national anthems — the traditional anthem ‘God Save The Queen’ and the poem ‘God Defend New Zealand’. Since then, both the anthems have had equal status. Following the accession of King Charles III to the throne in 2022, the words of the first anthem changed to ‘God Save the King’.

The latest change in a national anthem is not for a change of words but of the tune. In January 2025, Saudi Arabia has asked Hans Zimmer (Oscar-winning composer of the Lion King, Dune etc.) to create a new version of its national anthem, Aash Al Malik (Long live the King)!

Our anthem Jana Gana Mana (‘[Ruler of] the minds of the people’) was  composed as “Bharato Bhagya Bidhata” in Bengali by  Rabindranath Tagore on 11 December 1911. The first stanza of the song  was adopted by the Constituent Assembly of India as the National Anthem on 24 January 1950, the same day as the Indian Constitution was signed. (Mamata has dwelt on this at length in post last week).

There have been a few proposals to change/add/delete words and phrases. For instance, to add the name ‘Kamrup’ to make the anthem inclusive of the Northeast; or remove the name ‘Sind’ because it is no longer in India. The word “Adhinayak” has also been controversial,  because it was used to praise King George V in 1911. In 2019, there was a bill moved in the Rajya Sabha, to modify the third line to ‘Punjab Sindh Uttarpurv Gujarat Maratha’, to bring in the Northeast. However,  the Supreme Court has struck down all of these.

While tampering with sacred traditions is always fraught, there does seem to be sense in these suggestions, and maybe we need a debate on this. After all, the essence of democracy is debate, and this seems a worthwhile one!

Happy Republic Day!

–Meena

Thanks: http://www.vanguardngr.com

Hymn to the Republic

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This week the Indian nation will stand proudly as we salute our national flag and celebrate the 76th Republic Day, and the air reverberates with the chorus of Jana Gana Mana. This is the refrain of the national anthem that unites every citizen of the country.

English translation of the stanzas in Tagore’s own handwriting. Source:https://commons.wikimedia.org/

From the time children are in school, the anthem, played and sung on important national days, becomes deeply engrained, often learned by sheer repetition, without really going into what the words mean, and how they came to be conferred the status of a national anthem.

While Jana Gana Mana was declared as the National Anthem of free India on 24 January 1950, its history goes way back. The hymn was originally composed in Bengali, by Rabindranath Tagore, India’s first Nobel laureate, on 11 December 1911. Titled Bharoto Bhagyo Bidhata, it consisted of five stanzas. It was first published in a journal called Tatwabodhini Patrika in 1912 under the title Bharat Bidhata. However, it was first sung on Day 2 of the annual session of the Indian National Congress on 27 December 1911, by Saraladevi Chowdhrani along with a group of school students.

The fact that the date of the composition of the hymn coincided with the eve of the coronation of King George V led to rumours that the song was written to honour the British king. This was mainly due to misreporting in the press that confused this song with another song in Hindi Badshah Hamara, which was sung on the same occasion and, in fact, was in praise of the monarch. 

Years later, Tagore himself clarified in a letter dated 10 November 1937, that this was never the case; the song was a tribute to the greatness of India. In his own words (originally in Bengali): A certain high official in His Majesty’s service, who was also my friend, had requested that I write a song of felicitation towards the Emperor. The request simply amazed me. It caused a great stir in my heart.

In response to that great mental turmoil, I pronounced the victory in Jana Gana Mana of that Bhagyo Bidhata [ed. God of Destiny] of India who has from age after age held steadfast the reins of India’s chariot through rise and fall, through the straight path and the curved. That Lord of Destiny, that Reader of the Collective Mind of India, that Perennial Guide, could never be George V, George VI, or any other George.

For the next few years the song continued to be sung on different occasions, but with many regional variations. It still did not have a uniform tune. In February 1919, while on a tour of South India, Tagore took a break to rest at the Theosophical College in Madanapalle, in Andhra Pradesh. Started by Dr Annie Besant, the college was headed by educationist and poet James Cousins. James and his wife, Margaret Cousins who was Vice Principal, used to have informal singing sessions with the college community, every Wednesday night. Tagore also joined the session and asked if he could sing one of his poems in Bengali. This was the first time Tagore himself sang his poem. Margaret Cousins was enthralled, especially with the refrain, Jaya hai, Jaya hai, Jaya hai, Jaya Jaya Jaya Jaya hai. She requested Tagore for an English translation, which Tagore did, on the same day, 2 February 1919, while still at the college. He titled it The Morning Song of India. The translated version of the first stanza read: “Thou art the ruler of the minds of all people, dispenser of India’s destiny. Thy name rouses the hearts of the Punjab, Sindh, Gujarat and Maratha, of the Dravida, Orissa and Bengal. It echoes in the hills of the Vindhyas and Himalayas, mingles in the music of the Yamuna and Ganges and is chanted by the waves of the Indian Ocean. They pray for thy blessings and sing thy praise. The saving of all people waits in thy hand, thou dispenser of India’s destiny. Victory, Victory, Victory to thee.’

Margaret Cousins was very taken by the words. Herself a trained musician, she set down the musical notations, and rendered the song with musical instruments, sung by the students. Tagore appreciated the melody, and the efforts in composing it. The college adopted the English version as their prayer song which is sung even today. And from then on, the musical form of the Bengali song also became the tune that we are familiar with today.

While India was still in the struggle for Independence from British rule, Netaji Subhashchandra Bose, who was in Germany, at the founding meeting of the German-Indian Society selected Jana Gana Mana to be played as the national anthem of independent India. It was performed (not sung) by the Hamburg Radio Symphony Orchestra on 11 September 1942.

On the midnight of August 14, 1947, India the Indian Constituent Assembly assembled for the first time as a sovereign body. The session ended with a performance of Jana Gana Mana. The members of the Indian Delegation to the General Assembly of the United Nations held at New York in 1947 gave a recording of Jana Gana Mana as the country’s national anthem. The song was played by the house orchestra in front of a gathering consisting of representatives from all over the world.

The first stanza of Jana Gana Mana was officially adopted as India’s National Anthem by the Constituent Assembly of India on January 24, 1950. The formal rendition of the anthem takes approximately 52 seconds to complete.

There is a protocol to be followed in the performance of the anthem as laid down by the Government of India which includes instructions on the correct versions of the anthem; the occasions on which it can be sung or played; the need for paying respect to the anthem by observing proper decorum on such occasion. It is mandated by the Supreme Court of India that all must stand up with properrespect when the National Anthem is being rendered. 

This Republic Day, as we stand and honour the anthem, let us also bow in respect to the rich history that has enabled us to stand as proud citizens of a proud nation today.

–Mamata

Welcoming the New Year

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Happy New Year! This is the day when many will be recovering from the feasting and celebrating that saw out the old year and ushered in the new. In some parts of the globe it may still be the time that family and friends gather for a New Year dinner. This is also the week when many New Year resolutions are made! Many of these, nowadays, relate to the intentions of going on a diet which eschews certain foods, or one that limits to certain foods. Instead, why not begin the year with some mouth-watering traditions of feasting rather than fasting!

While the entire world collectively celebrates the transition from the old to the new, different cultures and different countries have their own traditions that mark this passage. Food is an important component of these celebrations. Here is look at this interesting smorgasbord of dishes that define the festivities.

In Spain the old year is ushered out with a tradition called Las Doce Uvas de la Suerte or The Twelve Grapes of Luck. As the clock strikes at midnight people mark each chime by eating a single grape. The twelve grapes thus eaten symbolize good luck for each month of the coming year. The tradition dates back to 1909 when there was a surplus harvest of grapes in Spain and people were encouraged to eat extra grapes for luck. The tradition continues to this day; people gather in public squares with bunches of grapes and eat twelve at midnight for good luck through the year.    

Mexico also has a similar twelve grapes tradition where a grape is eaten at each stroke of midnight with a wish for the coming twelve months. New Year’s Day lunch is a family celebration with traditional tamales (corn dough filled with meat, cheese or beans) wrapped in corn husks or banana leaves and steamed. The tamales are prepared at family tamaladas (tamale making parties) where the members get together to wrap the tamales. The sweet touch is added by Rosca de Reyes, a ring-shaped bread garnished with candied fruits.

In Japan, New Year’s eve known as Oshogatsu is marked by eating a dish called Toshikoshi Soba, made of buckwheat noodles. These year-end noodles are extra-long, and it is believed that slurping these down without breaking or chewing them will bring longevity to the consumer. Families come together to slurp on the long noodles; it is a ritual that also symbolizes the act of letting go of the hardships of the year gone by, and a positive approach to welcome new opportunities. A New Year’s Day tradition is the exchange of beautiful bento boxes with an assortment of delicacies, each with its special meaning, called Osechi-Ryori, as wishes for health and prosperity in the year ahead.

In South Korea families come together for a meal that includes a soup made with thinly sliced rice cakes. The soup called Tteokguk is believed to symbolize growing a year older, as well as grant good fortune.

Italians feast on lentils and Cotechino (spiced pork sausage) both of which are symbolic. In the past Romans would give a leather bag of legumes to their loved ones with the wish that each lentil would translate to a gold coin in the New Year. Even today, the lentils symbolize wealth and prosperity, and the sausage represents the richness of life. The combination of flavours, and the symbolism makes this a special family meal that ushers in the New Year.

In Greece a special cake called Vasipolita is baked with a coin hidden inside. The cake is shared by family and friends and the one whose slice contains the coin is believed to be lucky, and considered blessed throughout the year. Onions are also a part of the traditional culinary tradition. Greeks believe that the onion’s many layers represent shedding the old to reveal the fresh start of a new year. They also found that even when onions were left alone that they would sprout, which they believed was a sign of rebirth, growth and fertility. Thus the tradition of hanging a bag of onions on the front door.

A similar tradition in Armenia is to bake a large, sweet flat loaf known as tarehats, darin or gata in which is put a single coin or walnut which is baked in the bread. The family member who finds this in their slice is expected to have the best luck that year.

Denmark, Germany and Austria have a tradition of exchanging edible marzipan pigs (made of almond paste and sugar) as tokens of good luck and prosperity in the coming year. Each pig is artfully crafted and it is believed that the more detailed the crafting, the greater the fortune it brings. Once again symbolizing a positive exchange of wishes and goodwill.

In the Netherlands people enjoy oliebollen. Literally meaning ‘oil balls’ these are meant to line the stomach with oil as a shield against the sword attack of a mythical evil goddess. In fact, these are a kind of delicious doughnuts.

In Poland, a popular New Year’s tradition is eating pierogi, a type of dumpling filled with a variety of ingredients like meat, cabbage, mushrooms, or even sweet fillings like fruit. The dish reflects Poland’s rich agricultural traditions and the importance of a good harvest for a successful year. Pierogi are seen as a symbol of good luck, health, and prosperity. In some families, a coin is hidden inside one of the dumplings, and the person who finds it is thought to have a particularly lucky year.

A tradition in Turkey is for people to smash pomegranates in the doorways of their homes. It is believed that that number of seeds that fly out of the fruit indicate how much good fortune will come in the year ahead.

Greece has a similar tradition invoking pomegranates which are believed to be a sign of luck, prosperity and fertility. During the Xmas week households hang pomegranates from their door. On New Year’s Eve all the lights are shut and everyone leaves the house. One member is sent to re-enter the house putting the right foot in first, so that the family gets good fortune all year. This custom is called Podariko which roughly translates to ‘good foot’. Then a second family member takes the pomegranate in their right hand and smashes it against the front door; the greater the number of seeds that spill out, the greater the luck that the New Year will bring.

The Scots have a similar Foot First custom. The first person to enter a household after midnight (the First Footer) brings gifts including traditional ones like shortbread, a rich fruitcake, and whiskey that symbolize abundance and good fortune. The First Footing tradition as it is called blends hospitality with culinary tradition.

In Ireland, bread is an important new year’s food. Buttered bread symbolizes abundance and the absence of hunger. New Year’s Day is known as the Day of Buttered Bread. Another tradition is to wait till the bread from the Xmas week gets stale and hard and the bang it on the walls of the house on New Year’s Day to get rid of bad luck and evil spirits. Perhaps the most significant tradition is setting an additional plate at the dinner table for any loved ones lost in the previous year. 

All these traditions are marked by a sense of common sharing, a feeling of togetherness, and thanksgiving. The dishes, with the combination of sweet and savoury, are a reminder that life has its share of flavours, and that these are best enjoyed with the love and support of family and friends. May the year ahead give us all many opportunities for this.

Wishing for a year of Hope, Peace and Joy.

–Mamata

Doomsday Book

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No, not a book with dire predictions for 2025 aka Nostradamus, Baba Yaga etc.

The Domesday (or Doomsday) book is the 1200+ year survey record! Covering most of England and parts of Wales, it was commissioned by William the Conqueror. The survey started on Christmas of 1085 (exactly 939 years ago!) and was completed in1086. It is the oldest government record held in The National Archives of the UK.

It is an amazing piece of work, in that it surveyed almost every property in England and Wales. Using a fixed format, the survey tried to elicit who owned which property, who lived there, the livestock, how much the land was worth etc. It traced the history of the property—who had owned it before the time of William the Conqueror and who owned it now.

The whole purpose was to ensure that the King had a record of how much land was owned by whom, and therefore how much tax could be charged! It provides definitive proof of land rights and tax obligations, making it a crucial legal document even today. It covered over 13,000 places. Not only was it a foundational document for land rights, it also the socio-economic landscape of 11th-century England.

But why on earth was it called the Doomsday Book? This evolved from its association with the Last Judgment (or Doomsday). The book was the last word–once recorded, its contents could not be contested! It was the source of evidence of land titles, and hence served as a legal reference for resolving disputes over land ownership. It was the final arbiter!

Data collection for the Book was monumental for its time. Royal Commissioners travelled across the kingdom, collecting information from local juries composed of nobility and citizens convened for the purpose. These people swore in court to give correct and accurate information to the Commissioners.  They answered several questions including:

  • Who owned the land.
    • How much land there was.
    • The value of the land.
    • The number of tenants and their obligations.
    • Livestock counts.
    • How many plough teams.
    • How much wood, meadow and pasture.
    • How many mills and fisheries.

The responses gathered by the juries were meticulously recorded in Latin by one set of scribes, and checked by a second set. The data was probably cross-verified with other records and follow-up inquiries.

The information was recorded in two books—The Great Domesday, and the Little Domesday (covering different geographies). Each is arranged by county, and within each county, by landholder. Each landholder is given a number, which is written in red in roman numerals as the heading of their entry. There is a table of contents at the beginning of each county, which lists the landholders with their numbers.

The Doomsday Book is not a census of the population, but has influenced surveys and censuses down history. The Indian census is considered a model for gathering reliable data across a large country (not of course land ownership—that is a problem yet to be cracked).  The Doomsday Book has probably also influenced our census indirectly.  Hopefully, we will have our long-delayed census in the coming year—aided by smart phones, tabs and the like. Let us hope the information collected is as authentic as the Doomsday Book managed.

In 1789 Benjamin Franklin said, ” In this world, nothing can be said to be certain, except death and taxes.” The Doomsday Book was indeed proof of that!

So here is to a Happy 2025, even though we will still have to pay our taxes!

–Meena

nationalarchives.gov.uk

Pic: Historic UK

Christmas Island: Galapagos of the Indian Ocean

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This week the focus revolves around the numerous facets of Christmas–from festive decorations, to feasts and family gatherings. An appropriate week to share something that does not really share much in common with these facets except for its name. That is Christmas Island; so named because it was first discovered on Christmas day.

The island however may have been there millennia before its formal discovery and christening. A small speck in the Indian Ocean, Christmas Island is the peak of a steep basalt volcanic seamount that rose 5000 metres from the ocean floor about 60 million years ago. Located in the Indian Ocean 2600 km northwest of Perth in Australia and 350 km off Indonesia, this island is today a part of Australian territory. However it has a chequered history of human settlement.

For centuries the small island’s isolated location and its rugged coasts provided a natural barrier to human intrusion. Its sighting was recorded in the charts of British and Dutch navigators in the early seventeenth century. But it was named by Captain William Mynors of the Royal Mary a vessel of the East India Ship Company when his ship approached the island on 25 December 1643; but he was unable to land on the island. The first recorded landing on the island is believed to be by the English ship Cygnet under Captain Swan in 1688.

It was in the 19th century that several explorers visited Christmas Island. Some of these were naturalists who collected plant and animal species from the island which was rich in biodiversity. It was in 1887 during one of these collecting expeditions that the crew of a ship called HMS Egeria also discovered that the island had rich resources of phosphate which was a valuable fertilizer. This led the British to annex the island in 1888. Human settlement of Christmas Island began in 1888, when George Clunies-Ross, the owner of the Cocos Islands, sent his brother Andrew and a small party of Cocos Malay workers to form a settlement at Flying Fish Cove. He did this to pre-empt any other claim to the island’s phosphate resources.

The British leased the island to John Murray, a naturalist who had first predicted the presence of phosphates and George Clunies-Ross who initiated the first settlement on the island. Together the two set up the Christmas Island Phosphate Company which started mining and exporting phosphate from the island from 1900. The operation needed a large labour force for which they brought in Chinese, Malays and Sikhs as indentured migrant labourers. These were the early settlers who, over time, grew into a multicultural community. However at that time these workers lived in appalling conditions, and in the early years, hundreds of them died from beri-beri caused by malnutrition. But conditions gradually improved and the island’s phosphate industry continued to flourish in the period till the First World War, with Japan as the biggest customer.

During the Second World War, the island was targeted by the Japanese who wanted to capture the phosphate deposits. In 1942 Japanese troops took over the island and the phosphate mining provided rich fertilizer for the Japanese Empire. The island was an arena for several acts of war between the Allied and the Japanese forces until 1945 when Japan surrendered. The island was re-occupied by the British in October 1945.

The Australian and New Zealand governments purchased the Christmas Island Phosphate Company in 1949, and administrative responsibility for the island shifted from the UK to the British colony of Singapore. When Britain was giving up many of its colonies after World War II Australia expressed an interest in acquiring Christmas Island. In 1958, sovereignty of the island was transferred to Australia. As part of the transfer, Australia paid Singapore £2,800,000 as compensation for lost phosphate revenue. Christmas Island became an Australian Territory on 1 October 1958. This day is celebrated on the island as Territory Day.

The centuries of mining and exploitation for phosphate had left huge scars on this island which with its unique geology supported rare species of endemic plants and animals not found anywhere else. Many of the flora and fauna unique to this ecosystem had reached the point of being endangered. In the 1970s it was realized that this exploitation could have a serious impact on the Abbot’s booby a bird that nests only on Christmas Island. In 1974 a committee recommended that conservation of such endangered species was critical. This resulted, in 1980, in the creation of a national park on the south-western part of the island. This was further expanded in 1986 and 1989 to create the Christmas Island National Park. Today the park extends over 64% of the island’s land area as well as extending 50 metres offshore. The area protects rainforests, wetlands, freshwater mangroves, sea cliffs and coral reefs, each harbouring a rich diversity of life.

Red crab migration on Christmas Island

Perhaps the most significant of this is the great variety of crabs that have earned it the sobriquet as the kingdom of crabs. Among these crustaceans is the enormous robber crab, and the red crabs whose annual migration from the rainforest to the ocean in an unforgettable spectacle. Every year, millions of red crabs move from Christmas Island’s interior rainforests to the ocean to breed and lay eggs. A single female can lay up to 100,000 eggs. Red crabs must keep their bodies moist, so they wait for the rainy season to provide conditions that are ideal for the difficult journey. During migration, red crabs climb over and around obstacles in their way, following the same migration paths every year. 

The island’s 80 km coastline is an almost continuous sea cliff rising up to 20 metres in height. In a few places the cliff descends to shallow bays with sand and coral shingle beaches. The island is surrounded by a narrow circling reef teeming with swarms of tropical fish species. Dolphin, whale sharks, turtles and manta rays are easy to spot.  Today Christmas Island has become a naturalist’s paradise. Often described as the Galapagos of the Indian Ocean, Christmas Island has replaced phosphate mining with ecotourism. A heartening case of exploitation transformed into caring conservation.

–Mamata

Merry Christmas with Amigurumi

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‘Tis the season of good cheer and brotherhood.

Of celebrations and togetherness.

Of Christmas trees and ornaments.

And this last is what we are talking about today.

Photocredit: amigurumi.com

The tradition of decorating trees with ornaments is thought to have originated in Germany in the 1800s.  An enterprising gentleman by the name Hans Greiner began making glass ornaments called baubles for hanging on trees. These were the first mass-produced Christmas ornaments and were a huge commercial success.  Woolworths was the first company to import these types of decorations into the United States in 1890, from where  the custom spread to other parts of the world.

Common ornaments include globe ornaments, angels, egg ornaments, figurines, snowflakes, icicles and stars. They are made from a variety of materials, including glass, plastic, porcelain, metal, wood, and expanded polystyrene

A trend that has been popular in recent years is amigurumi Xmas ornaments. If like me, you haven’t a clue what this is, amigurumi is the art of creating crocheted or knitted stuffed creatures and objects, which has its roots in Japanese culture.

While the exact origins are not clear, it is believed to have developed from multiple influences over time. Japan has a long history of hand-made dolls and toys, such as “temari” (decorative balls made from thread) and “daruma” dolls. Amigurumi probably grew from these traditions. During the Meiji period (1868-1912), European knitting and crochet techniques were introduced to Japan and became popular. Japanese crafters combined these techniques with their traditional doll-making skills to create amigurumi,which comes from the Japanese words “ami” meaning crocheted or knitted, and “nuigurumi” meaning stuffed doll.  

Amigurumi grew more popular in Japan in the post-World War II era. As the country’s economy grew stronger, it led to increased income and leisure time, and a resurgence in crafting hobbies. It was during this time amigurumi gained recognition as a distinct art form.

A major impetus to the growth of this craft was the rise of “kawaii” culture. This Japanese aesthetic emphasizes cuteness and adorableness—think Hello Kitty.  Amigurumi lends itself to the creation of cute, whimsical, and anthropomorphic designs and hence appealed to the kawaii aesthetic.

Internet and social media brought amigurumi international attention and today, amigurumi enjoys a global following including in its use as Xmas ornaments. Amigurumi angles, cherubs, stars, elves and reindeers decorate trees across the world. Many people take pride in crocheting or knitting figures either on their own or with the help of popular amigurumi kits which include patterns, instructions, wools and needles.

A popular Xmas tree ornaments also rendered in crochet, which we are not very familiar with in India, is the Christmas Pickle. This is an American tradition. A decoration in the shape of a pickle is hidden on a Christmas tree, with the finder receiving an extra gift. It is also thought that he or she will enjoy good fortune for the next year. (While for us Indians, a pickle brings thoughts of mangoes and limes, in the West, it is often a cucumber, and that is what Christmas Pickle ornaments represent).  

The origin of the Pickle ornament is not known. Americans think it came from Germany, but Germans have no clue about this tradition. But here is one story: During the American Civil War, Bavarian-born Private John C. Lower had enlisted in the Pennsylvania Infantry. He was captured in 1864 and taken to the prison camp. On Christmas Eve he begged a guard for a pickle because he was starving. The guard provided the pickle, which Lower later credited for saving his life. After returning to his family in Bavaria, he began a tradition of hiding a pickle on their Christmas tree each year.

Even if it is not true, it is surely a story that captures the Christmas spirit!

Christmas wishes, Peace and Goodwill among all!

–Meena

The Ultimate Flower-Clock

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Wouldn’t it be beyond-beautiful if we had a clock which did not tell time by mundane numbers and needles, but by a particular flower blooming? Imagine if you peeped out of the window and you could look at this clock, and tell if it was 12 noon, or 1 pm or 2 pm by the flower that was blooming!

This was the kind of clock that Carl Linnaeus dreamed of.  Linnaeus’s flower clock or Horologica Floræ is a garden-plan thought up by Linnaeus that would take advantage of plants that open or close their flowers at particular times of the day, to accurately indicate the time.

As most of us would remember from school-biology, Linnaeus was the Swedish naturalist who laid down the principles for defining genera and species of organisms, and created a uniform system for naming them (the binomial nomenclature). His book, Systema Naturae (The System of Nature) consisted of only 11 pages but laid the foundations of taxonomy. It presented a hierarchical classification or taxonomy, of the three kingdoms of nature: stones, plants, and animals. Each kingdom was subdivided into classes, orders, genera, species, and varieties. All modern classification systems in biology have their roots in the Linnaean classification system which is based on similarities—for instance, Linnaeus grouped together organisms that shared obvious physical traits, such as number of legs or shape of leaves.

The Linnaean system of classification consists of a hierarchy of groupings, called taxa (singular, taxon). Taxa range from the kingdom to the species. The kingdom is the largest and most inclusive grouping. It consists of organisms that share just a few basic similarities. Examples are the plant and animal kingdoms. Then come the phylum, then the class, order, family, genus, and finally the species–the smallest and most exclusive grouping. It consists of organisms that are similar enough to produce fertile offspring together.

Linnaeus greatest contribution to science was his method of naming species. This method, called binomial nomenclature, gives each species a unique, two-word Latin name consisting of the genus name and the species name. An example is Homo sapiens, the two-word Latin name for humans, literally meaning “wise human.”

But if Linnaeus saw order in the natural world around him, he saw beauty too. In around 1748 he started thinking about the flower-clock. It builds on the fact that there are species of plants that open or close their flowers at set times of day. In his publication Philosophia Botanica, he gives 46 examples of flowering plants that are open during particular parts of the day. He brought together 43 of these under the heading Horologium Florae, or Floral Clock, arranging them in a time sequence from 3 am to 8 pm. The time at which each flower opens and closes is given in whole and half hours.

To give you a glimpse, here are a few rows from Linnaeus’ table:

Botanical nameCommon nameOpening timeClosing time
    
Tragopogon pratensisGoat’s-Beard3 a.m.–
Cichorium intybus L.Chicory4–5 a.m.–
Reichardia tingitana (L.) RothFalse Sow thistleby 6 a.m.10 a.m.
Taraxacum officinale WeberDandelion5 a.m.8–9 a.m.
Crepis alpina L.Hawk’s beard5 a.m.11 a.m.
Hieracium umbellatum L.Hawkweed6 a.m.5 p.m.

Though Linnaeus worked for years on this, the observations and hence selection and organization of flowers were not complete.  Linnaueus’ son Carl the Younger was given the task for completing the table so that the clock could be built. Unfortunately, Linnaeus the Younger’s floral clock was never completed, and his observations on the opening and closing of flower have not been found among his surviving papers.

Alas, no one has actually built such a clock, and it is not even clear that it is possible.  There are many practical issues to overcome. For instance, it would only function for part of the year since plants don’t flower through the year; the time shown would be indicative at best since blooming times are in a range and would vary with specifics like weather and other atmospheric conditions; many of the plants that Linnaeus observed and selected were wildflowers from Sweden and may not be found in other places, or would behave differently in other places. And then, the clock may not work at all in some seasons, if there are not enough flowers which bloom then.

Well, in this digital age, there are some ingenious people who have created an app based on the idea. They have selected 24 flowers, one for each hour that would normally flower at that time of the day or night. Floræ – Linnaeus’ flower clock app is free on appstore for Apple and iPhone.

So maybe we have make do with that, till some genious actually builds the Horologica Floræ to blow our minds!

–Meena

https://www.countrylife.co.uk/nature/curious-questions-what-is-linnaeuss-flower-clock-259032

Wikipedia

Wikimeida Commons (Picutre)

A Brush With History

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A survey in America in 2003 asked people which of the following inventions would be the hardest to live without: the automobile, the personal computer, the cell phone, the microwave, and the toothbrush. The more recent inventions trailed the list; the century-old automobile came in second, and the five-century-old toothbrush came in first!

This week Meena took a walk through the history of walking sticks. Continuing a look at things that aid, and starting at the head rather than the legs, here’s looking back at the object that we start and end our day with—the toothbrush!

But cleaning teeth did not wait till the discovery of the toothbrush. From the earliest times, people used to chew on a piece of twig until it softened and became frayed. This process helped to not only reach crevices where particles hid, but also released juices in the mouth which performed the task that toothpastes do now (not to mention the regular work out for the jaws!) Twigs from aromatic shrubs or trees were also built-in mouth freshening!  Even today neem and babool twigs continue to be used by many. While one end of the twig was frayed by chewing, the other end could be niftily carved into a toothpick to pick at the more stubborn bits wedged between the teeth.  

Such tooth cleaning tools date back to 3500-3000 BC, to early Babylonians and Egyptians. Toothsticks these have been discovered as part of burial artifacts in Egyptian tombs, to enable the departed persons tooth cleaning routine even in the afterlife.

Different cultures had other cleaning techniques. Some used a rag dipped in sulfur oil or a saline solution to wipe teeth. Another practice was to just rub baking soda (sodium bicarbonate is still an ingredient in toothpastes) directly onto the teeth.

The transition from a ‘make your own bristles by chewing’ implement to the toothbrush in its early form as we know it is believed to be the invention of the Chinese in the 15th century. Using a piece of bone or bamboo, they attached, at right angles to this, stiff coarse bristles from the back of a hog’s neck, and voila! You could reach the difficult to reach crevices in the mouth, and also actually brush your teeth rather than chew with them.  

News of this nifty device reached Europe via commercial travellers during the middle ages. But it was difficult to replicate because the Siberian hog’s hair which was ideally stiff and coarse was not available; and the horsehair used as a substitute was not stiff enough.

The story goes that an Englishman named William Addis who was jailed for inciting a riot spent his time in prison experimenting with alternatives to cleaning teeth by the prevalent method of rubbing them with a rag covered in soot and salt. Addis carved a handle out of a small bone, drilled holes into it, and inserted tufts of boar bristles which were held in place by glue. He had found his replacement for the soot and rag!

After his release Addis began importing coarse boar bristles from the cold climates of Siberia and northern China. His design and the combination proved so successful that, in 1780 he founded a company called Addis to mass produce these brushes, and became a very wealthy man. The company continues to be in the brush business till today.

The expanding market gave rise to innovations in design and material. The single or double row of bristles gave way to a three-row brush with serrated bristles, and Meyer Rhein patented this design in 1844. The Chinese civil war in the latter 1800s, and later the Japanese invasion of China made it increasingly difficult to procure the boar bristles. The invention of a nylon, new synthetic material in the mid-1930s provided a timely alternative to natural bristles. This invention began a new phase in the history of the toothbrush with Dr West’s Miracle Tuft Toothbrush in 1938, the first such toothbrush with nylon bristles. And the rest, as they say is history.

While the material of the handle and the bristles continues to be plastic and nylon, today toothbrushes come in a mouth-boggling range of shapes and sizes. Handles that are straight, angled, and contoured with a variety of grips; and bristles ranging from hard to extra-soft offer something to fit every tooth. While the fundamentals of their design have not changed since the time of the Egyptians and Babylonians, today toothbrushes, like all products are marketed with labels such as ‘ergonomically designed’ to ‘dentist endorsed’.  

Even more heavily dentist-endorsed are the mouth-watering choices in toothpastes. We have come a long way from sooty rags as mouth-cleaning agents. It is believed that mouth cleaning and freshening agents were in use even before the invention of toothbrushes. Ancient Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, as well as people in China and India used a variety of ingredients to keep teeth and gums clean, as well as for whitening teeth and freshening breath. These included powdered charcoal and bark, as well as a powder of ox hooves, ashes and burnt eggshells which added abrasiveness. The Chinese added mouth-freshening components such as ginseng, herbs, mints and salt.

Before the 1850s these mouth cleaners were in powder form. Early versions of these in paste form contained soap, and in the 1850s chalk was included in the composition. During the 1850s, a new toothpaste in a jar called a Crème Dentifrice was developed; in 1873 Colgate started the mass production of toothpaste in jars. The late 1880s saw another breakthrough in toothpaste manufacturing with the invention of toothpaste tubes; making it easier to carry, and to use.  Colgate introduced its toothpaste in a tube similar to modern-day toothpaste tubes in the 1890s. Today toothpaste is always associated with the tube.

The formula of toothpaste underwent changes over time. Soap, which was initially used in toothpaste, was later replaced by other ingredients like sodium lauryl sulphate (which continues to be an ingredient in most toothpastes). This transition led to gentler toothpaste options and a wider variety of flavours.

In the second half of the twentieth century modern toothpastes were developed to help prevent or treat specific diseases and conditions such as tooth sensitivity. Fluoride toothpastes to help prevent decay were introduced in 1914. Toothpastes with very low abrasiveness were also developed, and helped prevent the problems caused by overzealous brushing. Each of these is heavily advertised and endorsed by professional ‘oral health specialists’. The new trend in toothpastes is the return to natural organic ingredients to replace the chemical components. Perhaps a return to its origins, albeit in ‘brand’-new avatars!

–Mamata

Ruby Bridges Walk

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Photo: https://theafricanhistory.com/2375

Last week my grandnephew went on a Ruby Bridges Walk with his schoolmates in California. The seven-year old also gave a stirring little speech about why Ruby Bridges was special. This was the first time that I was hearing about Ruby Bridges and I was immediately curious to know more. As I discovered, her story is indeed inspiring.

Ruby Bridges was only six years old when she made history as the first Black child to enter an all-white school in the southern state of New Orleans in America. This was not as far back as the 19th century but as recent as 1960. America was far from being an integrated society. There was blatant racism and discrimination based on the colour of the skin, and segregation, both by law and custom was the norm. Both socially and politically, African Americans were relegated to the status of second-class citizens. Restaurants, schools, businesses and other parts of the community especially in the Southern states were segregated at that time.

In 1954, as an outcome of the Brown vs. Board of Education case, the Supreme Court ruled that separating children in public schools on the basis of race was unconstitutional. This milestone decision signalled the end of legalized racial segregation in the schools of the United States. However, the implementation of this was not as smooth; states struggled to put integration into practice.

Ruby Bridges was born on September 8, 1954, the year of this landmark ruling. Her parents were at the time working as sharecroppers in Tylertown, Mississippi. Two years later her family moved to New Orleans in Louisiana for better prospects. When Ruby started kindergarten the state still had segregated schools; the school board and the state’s lawmakers defied the court order and resisted school desegregation, until a federal court ordered Louisiana to desegregate and ruled that schools were to allow both Black and white students to attend.

The city of New Orleans responded by creating entrance exams for African American students to see whether they could compete academically. Ruby was one of the only six students (all girls) who passed the test, and was eligible to attend the so-far all-white William Franz Elementary School. Of the other five eligible children two families opted to keep their children at their old school, and three were transferred to another school. Ruby was the only one to be joining William Frantz School. Her parents needed to take a big decision, knowing that it would be difficult in many ways. Ruby’s father was hesitant to send his daughter, but her mother believed that it was important for the family to take that step — not just for Ruby herself, but for the children who would come after her. Also she was keen that Ruby should get the educational opportunities that generations of her family had been denied.

A judicial order dictated that New Orleans schools be integrated by November 14, 1960, so that would be six-year-old Ruby’s first day at school. Many years later Ruby recalled how, on that day, her mother dressed her in a new outfit and told her to behave herself, and not to be afraid. She told her that there would be a lot of people outside, but that she would accompany her to school. As it turned out, the scene was a lot different. There were crowds of people all the way to school, shouting insults and throwing things, to protest against the integration. Young Ruby innocently thought that this was not unusual, as she was familiar with the crowds and noise that marked the Mardi Gras festival in New Orleans. But this was not a festive crowd. The threat was so acute that four federal marshals had to escort Ruby and her mother to school, not just on November 14, but every day of the school year. The atmosphere in the school remained largely hostile. Angry white parents protested and some even withdrew their children from the school. Several teachers also resigned as they refused to teach Black students. For a six-year old going to a strange school accompanied by officers of the law, Ruby showed remarkable courage, marching like a little soldier.

Ruby was the only student in her class for the whole school year, she ate lunch alone and had no friends. But she never gave up attending school, and never missed a day. She was lucky to have Barbara Henry, who had recently moved from Boston, to be her teacher. She took classes as if she were talking to a whole class, and remained Ruby’s friend, support and mentor all through this year. When Ruby returned the next year for second grade, more African-American students had joined the school. Ruby was the pioneer who single-handedly paved the way for this.

The family too had to bear the consequences. Her father lost his job as a gas station attendant, and her sharecropping grandparents were turned off their land. Even the grocery store where the family shopped turned them away. But inspired by their daughter’s courage and perseverance, the family retained its dignity even in the face of such blatant discrimination.

Ruby Bridges continued to study at the William Frantz School until she graduated. She was followed by more Black children whose path was clearer and less difficult than hers had been. After graduation Ruby became a travel agent and had the opportunity to travel widely. She also raised a family of four sons. She continues to support her old school, helping with creating new programmes and championing its causes in all ways. Following severe damage in the 2005 Hurricane Katrina she got the school placed on the National Register of Historic Places, which guaranteed its restoration and preservation.

Ruby had not realized, at the age of six years that she was a path-breaker who helped break many barriers; but she grew up to be a life-long activist for racial equality. Over time she became an icon for desegregation. In 1999 she established the Ruby Bridges Foundation which stands for the “values, tolerance, respect, and appreciation of all differences”. She wrote about her early experiences in a book Through My Eyes. She was awarded the Presidential Citizens Medal in 2001. Even today, Ruby Bridges continues to strive for an end to racism.

A few years ago students in California who heard her story felt that there needed to be a way to commemorate Ruby’s pioneering efforts. They proposed this to the State legislature which decided that the state of California would mark November 14 as Ruby Bridges Walk to School Day every year. Thus this day is an annual day of dialogue where students discuss and take part in their own forms of activism to end racism and all forms of bullying. India celebrates Children’s Day on 14 November. Perhaps Ruby’s story is a reminder that many forms of discrimination and bullying affect our children even today. 20 November is also an important date as it is the date in 1959 when the UN General Assembly adopted the Declaration of the Rights of the Child. It is also the date when the UN General Assembly adopted the Convention on the Rights of the Child in 1989. A good week to remember Ruby Bridges’ assertion that “All of us are standing on someone else’s shoulders. Someone else that opened the door and paved the way. And so, we have to understand that we cannot give up the fight, whether we see the fruits of our labor or not. You have a responsibility to open the door to keep this moving forward”.

Thank you Manzil for introducing me to Ruby Bridges!

–Mamata

A Day for Donkeys: Vautha Fair

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For an animal that is usually the brunt of jokes, or the joker on the animal pack, this is the one occasion when the donkey is in the limelight. The Donkey Fair revolves around donkeys, and marks an important event in the local calendar of Gujarat. Held annually at Vautha, the fair goes back hundreds of years, and even today attracts large crowds.

The event occurs on the full-moon night of the lunar month of Kartik (October-November), which begins after Diwali. Kartik Purnima is considered as an auspicious day and is celebrated by different communities in India in different ways. A common ritual is taking a holy bath in a river. As per Hindu mythology, it is believed that this is the day on which Hindu Gods came down to earth to take a dip in a river, and even today, those who take holy dips in rivers receive the blessings of all gods, and their sins are washed away.

One such site is at Vautha in Gujarat, located near Dholka, about 50 km from  Ahmedabad. Vautha is located at the confluence of the rivers Sabarmati and Vatrak. The confluence is also called sapta sangam, which means the meeting of seven rivers. It is at Vautha that the Vatrak river merges with the smaller rivers Meshwo, Hathmati, Shedhi, Majum and Khari with the Vautha, which in turn merges with the Sabarmati.

The history of the fair goes back almost five hundred years. There are many local legends associated with it. One legend attributes the fair’s origins to the time when the sage Vashishta is believed to have performed a yagna at the confluence of the rivers. Another one claims that Vautha is one of the sites that the Pandavas stopped by at during their exile.

Legend also has it that Kartikeya or Kartik, the son of Lord Shiva and the Goddess Parvati visited this site on this full moon night. To mark this, an annual fair dedicated to Kartikeya is held on Kartik Purnima. Thousands of pilgrims from all castes and communities and professions throng here for a holy dip, and the festive atmosphere is highlighted by a fair.

The fair is a vibrant event with numerous stalls selling local food, handicrafts, and lots of other attractive ware. It is enlivened by music and local theatre performances and folk dances. There are rides and varied exciting activities. This is a major social and cultural event that villagers from far and near look forward to all year.

What makes this fair unique is that this is the major animal trading fair in Gujarat where the main animals traded are donkeys, although there is also some trade in camels, horses and goats. It is believed that this is an auspicious time for buying and selling animals.

Farmers and traders from all over India bring donkeys to the fair. The animals are painted with coloured patterns and make for an attractive sight. However the buying and selling is serious business. Donkeys are closely examined to verify breed, build, fitness and health. Scrutiny of the teeth is an important part of the process. There is usually an auction to boost to competition and the prices which can range from 7,000 to 17,000 rupees or more.  

Several different breeds of donkeys make their way to this auction. Each has its own characteristics and uses. Halari donkeys from Saurashtra are white in colour and of docile temperament. They are used as pack animal during pastoralist migration, being able to walk 30-40 km a day; and also to pull carts. Kuchchhi donkeys from Kuchchh are grey, white, brown or black in colour. They are sturdy and can carry 80-100 kg and pull 200-300 kg on carts. They are used as pack animals during migration, and also for weed removal on farms. Sindhi donkeys from Barmer and Jaisalmer districts of Rajasthan are brown in colour can carry 1000-1500 kg and are used as pack animals to transport water, soil, earthenware, construction material, and fodder; as well as for pulling carts and for ploughing by small and marginal farmers. There are also donkeys from Marwad as well as other local breeds from other parts of India.

While thousands of donkeys continue to be brought and traded at this largest donkey fair, studies indicate that there is a steady decline in the donkey population in India. Increasing mechanization has replaced the need for donkeys for transporting material and as pack animals. This is also a factor for replacing donkeys in farm work. Traditional donkey-raising and herding families are moving to new occupations as demand for donkeys is going down, and the cost of maintaining the animals rises. There are also no specific government schemes or policies that promote the animal or its welfare. Donkeys are being abandoned when they are too old or feeble for hard labour. Even in Ladakh which has a tradition of donkey rearing, there is a decreasing role for donkeys in local occupations and uses. A donkey conservation park has been opened here in collaboration with communities where stray or abandoned donkeys are kept with dignity.   

In the meanwhile the donkeys still have their day at Vautha. And this year it falls on 15 November.

–Mamata