Nan Shepherd and The Living Mountain

December 7, 2023 ~ millennialmatriarchs ~ Leave a comment

George Mallory, when he was asked why he wanted to climb Mount Everest, is said to have replied: “Because it’s there”. Mallory was the only climber to take part in three of the British pioneering expeditions to climb Mount Everest in the 1920s. Mountains have always “been there” and have over centuries, challenged humans to ascend and ‘conquer’ them. Hundreds of books have been written about mountains, mostly by men. The books are characterised by the language of conquest and victory, and propelled by the goal of reaching the summit.

In the period when men were racing to scale and conquer the highest peaks, was a young woman who perceived, and described, mountains not in terms of heights but in terms of depths. This was Nan Shepherd, not only an explorer of mountains, but also one of the great early 20th century writers of nature, landscape and the Scottish mountains that she so loved.

Anna (she called herself Nan) Shepherd was born in February 1893 near Aberdeen on the North East coast of Scotland. Not long after she was born her family moved to Cults (now a suburb of Aberdeen). The hills of Deeside close by, were her natural playground, and her love for walking in the hills was encouraged by her father who was a keen hill walker. Nan was also an avid reader, and at the age of fourteen started filling notebooks with quotations and citations from her readings. She attended Aberdeen High School for Girls and studied at Aberdeen University, graduating with an MA in 1915. She went on to teach English literature at the Aberdeen Training Centre for Teachers (later the College of Education). She remained there for the next forty-one years, until her retirement in 1956, having become known as an inspiring teacher with a feminist slant to her work. Although she did travel extensively, she continued to live in her childhood home until she died in 1981.

Having explored the local hills almost from the time that she could walk, Nan ventured further afield, to the Cairngorms. These formidable mountains to the west of Aberdeen, are amongst the wildest landscapes in the British Isles. This was in June 1928, Nan was 35 years old. This first experience of the mountains was the start of a passion that came to define both her life and her writing. From then on, she would head for the Cairngorms whenever her job would allow, often alone, or occasionally with friends and fellow walkers.

For Nan, who conquered all six of the major peaks in the Cairngorms while still a young woman the goal was never to reach the summit of a mountain: it was not climbing up that excited her so much as “clambering down,” discovering all the hidden parts of the mountain that only an attentive walker would notice. It was this perspective of ‘looking within’ both at the mountain, and herself, that inspired Nan to also write copiously during the period between 1928 and 1933. During this time, she published three novels: The Quarry Wood, The Weatherhouse, and A Pass in the Grampians. As she said: “It simply must be written”. Shepherd drew inspiration from the places and people she knew well, setting her stories in the North East of Scotland, with a focus on country communities and the harsh way of life imposed by the landscape. Above all, what shone through was her deep love for the Scottish mountains and her knowledge of these through walking.

While Nan published these books, the book that was most inspired by these mountains, and her most inspirational piece of writing, was called The Living Mountain. The book, written in 1940, describes Nan’s explorations, as a walker and as a writer, of the Cairngorm Mountains. Nan sent her manuscript to a novelist and publisher friend Neil Gunn who appreciated it, but felt that it was not fit for publication unless she added photographs and a map. Nan put away the manuscript in a drawer and there it remained for over 30 years. It was finally published by the Aberdeen University Press in 1977.

The publication of The Living Mountain revealed Nan as one of the earliest ‘Nature writers’ who brilliantly captured the Cairngorms in their various seasonal moods. Her descriptions emerged out of her own immersion in the experience of walking in every kind of weather, swimming in the lochs, dipping in the streams, and camping under the sky. It also showed her incisive eye for detail, and her profound understanding not only of the geography and geology of the mountains, but equally of the living elements that made it a vibrant ecosystem. Long before ecology became a buzzword, Nan was acutely aware of the interconnections.

Shepherd was interested in the ‘essential nature’ of the mountain: in understanding it from all angles and in all seasons. She viewed the mountains not as looming objects of sublime terror, but as acquaintances. She wrote: Often the mountain gives itself most completely when I have no destination but have gone out merely to be with the mountain as one visits a friend, with no intention but to be with him.

The poetic descriptions of the routes are so vivid that the readers can literally walk these with Nan. But Nan Shepherd’s writing is not simply a description, it is equally an introspection. While most mountaineers think in terms of peaks, plateaus and cliffs, Nan looks within, “into” cracks in rocks, and the depths of lochs and rivers. Her prose is philosophical and often meditative: One does not look upwards to spectacular peaks but downwards from the peaks to spectacular chasms, for a mountain has an inside.

Although it was written nearly a century ago, The Living Mountain is today acclaimed as “one of the most brilliant works of modern landscape literature”. It is a lyrical memoir that combines field notes, natural history, and oral history. One of its most profound tenets is that we should not walk “up” a mountain but “into” mountains, thus exploring ourselves as well as them.

December 11 is celebrated as International Mountain Day. The theme for this year is Restoring Mountain Ecosystems. Nan Shepherd’s The Living Mountain is a reminder that healthy mountain ecosystems can restore us: in body and spirit.

–Mamata

The Camel in the Tent: Invasive Animal Species

October 26, 2023 ~ millennialmatriarchs ~ Leave a comment

The story of the Arab who kindly let his camel put his nose in the tent to keep it warm, and ended up with the entire camel inside, while the Arab was ousted into the cold is an old one. It is quoted as an example of “give an inch and they will take a mile”. While this is a fable, in reality there are several examples in Nature, of animal species, who, once invited or introduced, proceed to take over spaces, pushing out the original inhabitants. A case of invasive species.

Recently I wrote about some invasive plant species in India. This is about invasive animal species which have not only invaded spaces but which have posed serious threats to native species in several parts of the world. Ironically some of the most damaging invasive animal species were originally introduced either for sport, as pets, or as livestock and pack animals. Here are a few examples.

European rabbits. In 1859, Thomas Austin, a wealthy English settler in Australia, received 24 wild and domesticated European rabbits as a Christmas present from his brother in England. These were for hunting on his estate in Melbourne. The rabbits multiplied rapidly, producing more than four litters each year. They had no predators to keep their numbers in control. They also adapted easily to their new environment, and by burrowing beneath the soil, they spread far beyond the boundaries of the estate. In 50 years these rabbits spread across the entire continent. Their numbers became so large that they destroyed crops and land, leading to soil erosion. They also negatively affected agriculture and plants by overgrazing. Not only did the rabbits wreak havoc on Australian croplands, they contributed to the decline of native plant and animal species. Today Australia has over 200 million rabbits, the fastest colonization rate for an introduced mammal ever recorded. The control of this invasion continues to remain a huge challenge which has engaged Government researchers, biologists, farmers, and others. The colonization of Australia by the European rabbit is said to be one of the most iconic and devastating biological invasions in recorded history.

Cane toad: Another story from Australia. This one about a species that was introduced not for sport, but for biological pest control, and ended up being a major pest itself.

The Australian sugar industry began around 1862 when Captain Louis Hope succeeded in raising a viable sugarcane crop, and then established a sugar mill in Queensland. Establishing the sugar industry was difficult in the face of drought conditions. A bigger problem was that the roots of the plants were eaten by the larvae of native beetles which were collectively called cane beetles. In 1933, Australian sugarcane growers attending a conference in the Caribbean heard about a toad that was effective in destroying these beetles. Australia had no native toad species. The growers lobbied for the import of the cane toads to Australia in the hope that these would combat the crop-destroying cane beetles.

In early 1935, a box containing 102 toads arrived from Hawaii. The toads were kept in captivity where they rapidly multiplied. In July 1935 the toads were released into the fields. But not all was known about the toads by then. As it turned out, the toads could not jump high enough to eat the larvae of the beetles that lived largely on the upper stalks of the sugarcane plants. The voracious toads thus began to feed on whatever they could get at the lower level—insects, bird’ eggs and even native frogs. Would-be predators were killed by the poison that these toads secreted. Thus the original plan misfired disastrously, as the invited invaders laid ravage to the crops and native species. The cane toad continues to seriously impact the ecosystems of northern Australia even as they spread to other parts. Due to Australia’s geographic isolation and subsequently unique and fragile biodiversity, this is a grave issue. The Australian Government has stated that ‘There is unlikely to ever be a broad-scale method available to control cane toads across Australia’.

Indian Bullfrog. Closer to home both in terms of geography and history, is the relatively recent example of the spreading menace of the Indian bullfrog on the Andaman Islands. While the first report of its sighting was in October 2011, it is believed that the bullfrogs may have been introduced to the islands in early 2000s.The reason for the introduction is not clear. Some believe that the tadpoles may have come with fish food from mainland India. Or it may have been brought by farmers from West Bengal and released into rice fields for local consumption. But having arrived, these prolific breeders are beginning to make inroads. Of greatest concern is that their tadpoles are carnivorous, and eat tadpoles of other frog species, thus threatening the native species. The large-sized adult frogs also compete with native species for the same food.

As the frogs are spreading to more islands, the story of Australia’s invasion by alien species is beginning to play out again—introduction, naturalization, and expansion. The Andaman archipelago which consists of 300 islands has rare endemic species which are vulnerable to such invasions, and which eventually could lead to disturbing delicate ecological balances.

Common Myna. Once again, a twisted tale of transition from mainland to islands. This ubiquitous bird that we are so used to seeing around us, is not such a friendly neighbourhood bird in the Andaman islands. Of the 12 bird species that were introduced into the Andamans around the end of the 19^th century, 6 have disappeared, but 5 are still found there. Of these, the common myna has been not only the most successful spreader and stayer, but also the biggest threat to native avian species. These birds are known to prey on the eggs and chicks of other bird species. They also compete with the local hole-nesting birds for nesting sites, slowly inching out the native inhabitants from their own habitats.

From the Andamans, all the way to Australia, the range of the common myna is increasing at a rapid pace, leading the IUCN Species Survival Commission to declare it as one of the world’s 100 worst invasive species that pose a threat to biodiversity, agriculture and human interests.

Like the camel that sidled its way into the well-meaning Arab’s tent, the process of incursion, expansion, dislodging of original inhabitants, and taking over, is the story of invasive plant and animal species. This process, together with habitat destruction, has had serious ecological costs, and has been a major cause of extinction of native species throughout the world in the past few hundred years.

–Mamata

Invited Invaders: Invasive Alien Species

October 12, 2023 ~ millennialmatriarchs ~ Leave a comment

In the last couple of weeks a previously unheard of name has been making news. This is Conocarpus, and the news is that the Government of Gujarat has imposed a ban on the plantation of Conocarpus trees in both forest and non-forest areas. This has come not long after there was praise for the lush greenery that lines the riverfront of the Sabarmati river in Ahmedabad which was made possible by the large-scale plantation of Conocarpus as part of the riverfront development plan. Similar plantations have been done in several cities of Gujarat in the past few years. This has also been the case in some other states. Several municipalities in Telangana planted these fast-growing trees on both sides as well as between the roads to increase greenery. The Pune Municipal Corporation planted these in some public parks. Conocarpus erectus trees have been a popular choice in recent years for beautification of public spaces, as well as residential societies. It is only more recently that researchers have drawn attention to the adverse health and environmental impacts of these trees, raising concerns.

Ironically these trees, which are greening urban landscapes are botanically mangrove plants that grow in tropical or coastal mangroves. They are not native to India, but are indigenous to North and South America, as well as parts of Africa. They began to be widely planted in urban areas because of their ability to grow quickly, and their thick foliage. Now research is indicating that there is more harm than good done. Conocarpus trees have a high-water demand, which is easily met in their natural habitat. But when these are planted in arid areas, their deep root systems compete with nearby plants for water, and also significantly impact local water resources. The roots can damage drainage systems and underground telecommunication lines. The non-indigenous species can outcompete native flora and disrupt natural ecosystems and local biodiversity. They are also a threat to human health as their pollen can trigger allergic reactions causing cough, cold and asthma.

And so the not-too long ago welcomed visitor is beginning to raise concerns. The story is not new. India has seen several examples of such ‘invited invaders’. Meet some of these, who have come to stay.

Prosopis juliflora a thorny, evergreen shrub/small tree which is native to northern South America and Central America, was introduced to India during the nineteenth century in order to halt the further expansion of the Thar Desert in north-western states and to meet the fuel wood crisis of peninsular India. Most of the Indian states and union territories introduced this species in their provinces in order to overcome the local fuel wood demands. This exotic cousin of local Prosopis species (especially Prosopis cineraria) quickly gained a roothold and spread rapidly wherever it grew, developing impenetrable shrubby thickets of thorny branches which could injure humans and domestic animals. The impact on local biodiversity was also evident in the Protected Areas where the plant was introduced, especially in Keoladeo Ghana and Ranthambore National Parks in Rajasthan, where the introduction turned into an invasion that drastically reduced the grassland habitat and threatened the continued survival of the grassland species of birds (especially the Great Indian Bustard) and other animals like the Desert fox. The spread of the shrub reduced the foraging area for wild and domestic animals, affecting the food pyramid all the way up to the tiger—the keystone species. By the time the deleterious effects of the well-intentioned introduction were realized, the alien invasion had become uncontrollable in scope and scale.

Parthenium hysterophorus is an erect fast-growing herbaceous plant native to the area surrounding the Gulf of Mexico, North, Central and South America and the West Indies. It is a weed commonly known as bitter weed, carrot weed, broom bush and, in India as congress grass.

It is believed that the seeds of the weed entered into India during the 1950s along with the wheat grains received from the United States under the US PL 480 scheme. Since its introduction, the weed has invaded different habitats in India including agricultural lands, bunds of wetland, watercourses, community land, urban areas, overgrazed pastures, industrial areas, playgrounds, sides of the road and railway tracks and the fringes of the reserve forests and other protected areas. Today it has spread over millions of hectares of land across the country. The invasion has been global as the weed has been reported from more than 20 countries across five continents.

Due to its harmful effects on humans, livestock and to biodiversity, P. hysterophorusis was declared as the most dangerous terrestrial weeds of our times. As it spreads, the weed releases chemicals that alter the natural chemical composition of the soil which affects the productivity of crop plants and other native plants. The weed also impacts human health causing respiratory problems including asthma and bronchitis, watering eyes, as well as skin inflammation and eczema.

Lantana camara, popularly known as wild sage, is a thorny and multi-stemmed deciduous shrub, which produces clusters of small attractive tubular multi-coloured flowers. The plant is a native of South and Central America and the Caribbean islands. The plant was widely introduced in the 19^th century in tropical parts of Africa, Asia and Oceania as an ornamental and hedge plant. In India Lantana was introduced around 1807 as an ornamental plant at the then Royal Botanical Garden in Kolkata. In due course of time, the noxious weed managed to escape from the introduced sites and invaded several thousand hectares, including protected areas such as national parks and sanctuaries. Today the plant is believed to have been naturalized in nearly 60 countries and several island nations.

Studies have established that the uncontrollable spread of Lantana has had harmful impacts on the ecosystem. It disturbs the natural succession cycle of native vegetation, altering the floral composition of the local ecosystem, leading to the gradual elimination of native floral diversity. Apart from wild flora, the biochemical properties of the plant also adversely affect cash crops such as coffee, cotton, tea, rice and sugarcane among others. Considering the vast impacts on the ecosystem, biodiversity and range extension ability, IUCN’s Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) has declared the weed as one among 100 of the world’s worst invasive species

Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) is a floating aquatic invasive plant species native to Amazon basin of Brazil, which has drastically invaded into many tropical and subtropical countries of Latin America, Caribbean, Africa and Southeast Asia. Invasion of this species causes huge loss to aquatic biodiversity and provides home to several disease-causing vectors

The rapidly growing plant was introduced into several parts of the world, including India, at the end of the nineteenth century for ornamental purposes. In due course of time, water hyacinth found its way into natural inland water bodies such as lakes, rivers, reservoirs and rural ponds. In most of the wetlands of Africa and India, this species is still spreading even after a century of its initial introduction.

Invasion of this species causes huge loss to aquatic biodiversity. It spreads rapidly spread within a short period to form dense impenetrable mats across the water surface, preventing the entry of sunlight and also limiting water access for humans and wildlife. The proliferation of the weed in the wetlands slowly alters the density and diversity of the floating and submerged native aquatic plant species, ending in their extinction. The dense vegetation serves as a breeding ground for several vectors such as mosquitos, flies, and snails, which can transmit diseases like cholera, malaria, and filariasis. The invasion affects water transport, fishing, leads to disruption of hydroelectric operations, blockage of the natural water tributaries and irrigation and flooding systems causing flooding. Due to its vast impacts on the local economy, biodiversity and human health, the weed has been recognized as one of the 100 most dangerous invasive species, and the top ten worst weeds.

The IUCN defines invasive alien species as animals, plants or other organisms that are introduced by humans, either intentionally or accidentally, into places outside of their natural range, negatively impacting native biodiversity, ecosystem services or human economy and well-being. Today as the world faces numerous challenges from not just biological invasions, the threat of these invasions continues to grow as the movement of people and goods around the world increases opportunities to transport species to new environments. At the same time, climate change is making areas more hospitable to new species. Invasive alien species are one of the biggest drivers of biodiversity loss and species extinctions. Such invasions also put human health, food security and livelihoods at risk, as highlighted in the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 15.

–Mamata

The Best Kind of Nut is a Coconut

August 29, 2023 ~ millennialmatriarchs ~ Leave a comment

When there are myths and stories about the origins of an animal, tree, bird or anything in nature, we can be sure that the particular thing has played a huge part in human lives and society down the ages. The coconut is one such. There are stories from across the world about the origins of the coconut. Even in India, there are at least 4-5 popular stories about this. Not to mention stories from West Africa, China, Malaysia, etc.

Coconuts are an integral part of our lives in India—from the morning chutney for the idli, to the oil we swear by for hair growth, the refreshing and safe drink we give convalescents, to the coir mattresses we sleep on—they touch our lives in so many ways. Coconuts are a must for a visit to a temple, for a housewarming, a puja, or to launch a new vehicle.

I didn’t know till recently that there was a World Coconut Day, marked on Sept 2^nd every year. Nor did I know that there was something as grand and formal as The International Coconut Community (ICC), an intergovernmental organization of coconut producing countries organized in 1969 under the aegis of the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UN-ESCAP). Their mission is to ‘To promote, coordinate and harmonize all activities of the coconut industry which sustains the lives of millions of small farmers.as well as those engaged in production, processing and marketing of coconut products.’ The ICC Secretariat is located in Jakarta, Indonesia and is headed by an Executive Director. The ICC has 20 member-countries from Asia, the Pacific, Africa, South America and the Caribbean’s. India is of course one of them.

World Coconut Day commemorates the foundation of Asian and Pacific Coconut Community (APCC), an intergovernmental organization of coconut producing countries.

The coconut certainly deserves all this. It is a tree which provides food, fuel, medicine, cosmetics, building materials, and much more. In the South Seas, there is a saying that ‘he who plants a coconut tree plants food and drink, vessels and clothing, a heat source, habitation for himself, and a heritage for his children’. Importantly, it forms part of the livelihood basket of lakhs of small landholders—98 per cent of coconut holdings are with small and marginal farmers.

India is among the largest producers of coconuts in the world with Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh being the major contributors. We produce over 19 million nuts a year, accounting for over 31 per cent of the world’s production. We also account for 66 per cent of the world’s exports, and send our coconuts to over 140 countries.

There is also R&D going on into development of a range of new coconut-based medical products. In the world of healthcare, a number of products from sterilizing agents to fungicides to anti-itch products are being developed. The fashion industry too has taken to developing new products based on coconuts. There is also considerable research in the direction of developing several food-related products like coconut skimmed milk, coconut milk powder, coconut cream, coconut vinegar, coconut jaggery and palm sugar, and we may expect to see many such new products hitting the market soon. There is also on-going effort to make coconut shell charcoal and activated carbon.

So let’s join in the celebration of the ubiquitous coconut that we take so much for granted. Drink tender coconut-water, eat a coconut burfi, make a curry with a coconut gravy, or throw a coconut themed party. Just a way to say thank you to a tree that gives us so much—health, beauty, taste, shelter, sound sleep, and importantly, livelihoods to so many!

–Meena

Mycologist, Artist, Author: Beatrix Potter

August 3, 2023 ~ millennialmatriarchs ~ Leave a comment

Several generations of children grew up with The Tale of Peter Rabbit. The author Beatrix Potter is a familiar name in children’s literature, but what is less known is that she was also a notable woman of science, in an age when this was almost unheard of.

Helen Beatrix Potter was born on July 28, 1866 in London in a family that enjoyed culture and the arts. Although Beatrix was educated at home by a governess, she and her brother spent all their free time in the woods around their home, observing the small creatures that lived there, and even bringing some, like hedgehogs and rabbits home. Beatrix was a quiet shy girl who expressed herself through paintings and drawings of wildlife, and in coded notes in a secret diary.

When an uncle who was a chemist gave her permission to use his microscope, a whole new world opened up for Beatrix who could minutely study plants, and insects and make detailed sketches. Her interest in natural history was further spurred when she used to visit the South Kensington Museum. She found herself drawn to the study of plants and fungi as well as insects.

Beatrix’s interest in drawing and painting mushrooms, or fungi, began as a passion for painting beautiful specimens wherever she found them. As her biography says: She was drawn to fungi first by their ephemeral fairy qualities and then by the variety of their shape and colour and the challenge they posed to watercolour techniques.

In October 1892, on a family holiday in Scotland, Beatrix got to know Charles McIntosh, a local postman and self-educated naturalist who was also an expert on British fungi. McIntosh admired her pictures, sent her specimens to paint and advised her on scientific classification and microscope techniques. She sent him copies of her pictures in return. She would go on to produce some 350 highly accurate pictures of fungi, mosses and spores.

Beatrix also started hunting for rare varieties of mushrooms, and growing dozens of different species of fungi at home, in order to study their development. She was intrigued by their life cycle. By 1895, Beatrix Potter’s interest in fungi was becoming even more scientific. Following advice from McIntosh, she began to include cross sections of mushrooms in her illustrations to show their gills and used a microscope to draw their tiny spores. She speculated about whether these spores could germinate and the environments in which they might do so.

In May 1896 her uncle Sir Henry Roscoe, a prominent chemist, introduced her to the mycologist at Kew’s Royal Botanic Gardens. This led to a post at the Royal Botanic Gardens where she produced faithful, detailed renderings, largely of mushrooms and toadstools as seen through a microscope. In addition to her art, the scientist in her also began experimenting with germinating spores of various fungi on glass plates and measuring their growth under a microscope. Her close observations and experiments, as well as her drawings showed in great detail how lichens, a common type of fungi found on rocks and trees, were actually not one but two different organisms that lived together. Her studies showed that this was a union between an alga and a fungus. The two different organisms are able to live together, with each of them benefitting the other in some way. Beatrix thus was one of the earliest to study and hypothesize what would later become the science of symbiosis. However, the botanists she showed her work refused to discuss even discuss the drawings she made.

Beatrix prepared a paper on her findings and submitted her work to The Linnaean Society of British Scientists but was not allowed to read it herself because, at that time, only men were invited to their meetings. The all-male panel rejected her paper and refused to publish it. Potter withdrew the paper, presumably to make amendments. But it was never published; and no copy exists today. Thereafter Beatrix turned her full attention to drawing and writing.

There is today some controversy about how serious Beatrix Potter was as a mycologist. But there is no doubt about the accuracy and detailing of her drawings and paintings of fungi which remain unparalleled, and are referred to mycologists even today. As her biography says: Beatrix Potter never saw art and science as mutually exclusive activities, but recorded what she saw in nature primarily to evoke an aesthetic response.

The name Beatrix Potter endures today as the author of well-loved children’s books. In 1893 she sent a letter with a picture story to a sick child of her old nanny which began with the words “I don’t know what to write to you, so I shall tell you a story about four little rabbits whose names were Flopsy, Mopsy, Cottontail and Peter.” Beatrix went on to create the loveable characters of Peter Rabbit, Benjamin Bunny and Jemima Puddle Duck, among others that had adventures in the 26 books that she published subsequently. Over 150 million copies of her books have been sold and have been translated into 35 different languages

As her books gained popularity, she channelled all the profits towards a large property called Hill Top which she purchased in 1905. Situated in England’s Lake District, this was her first farm. She enjoyed the quiet and solitude that the thirty-four-acre property brought her and this allowed her to work more efficiently. Aside from being a farmer and landowner, Beatrix also became recognized as a sheep breeder. She never lost her love for nature and became an advocate of traditional farming and the preservation of the wild environment surrounding the area. She continued buying patch after patch of land around her farm. By doing so, Beatrix hoped to further pursue her dream to provide land for the creatures that she had loved since her childhood.

Beatrix Potter died of bronchitis in 1943, aged 77, leaving behind a legacy across different fields of study. The British Natural Trust eventually became recipient to her donation of 4,000 acres of land. The property was named a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2017, and is now open to the public. Beatrix Potter’s love for the land and all its creatures continues to provide a haven for all life.

–Mamata

Charming Worms

June 29, 2023 ~ millennialmatriarchs ~ Leave a comment

Aristotle called them the ‘intestines of the earth’. Cleopatra declared them to be sacred and forbade Egyptian farmers from removing them from the land. Japanese religious lore has a story about them. Certain of the Shinto gods decided to create the world’s creatures from living clay; formulating, in turn, animals, birds, fish and insects. At each stage their creations asked: ‘What shall we eat?’ When they created Man, he was told to eat everything. Then, the gods noticed some small clay scraps that had been dropped and decided to create worms, which they instructed to live underground and eat soil – although they could come to the surface from time to time in search of anything they found edible.

These creatures are what we call earthworms. Archaeological evidence suggests that worms have been around for 600 million years. These underground creatures hardly made news or were subjects of serious scientific research. It was Charles Darwin who studied earthworms for 39 years, who reaffirmed the value of these lowly creatures when he said, “It may be doubted whether there are many other animals in the world which have played so important a part in the history of the world than the earthworm. Worms are more powerful than the African Elephant and are more important to the economy than the cow.”

Darwin’s observations, investigations, conclusions and pronouncements were published in 1881, six months before his death under the title The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms. Darwin estimated that an acre of mid-19th-century arable land, the result of centuries of gentle pummelling and fertilisation by farm animals and traditional toil by countrymen, contained 53,000 earthworms. He further calculated that, over the course of a year, the worms moved 15 tons of soil to the surface – a process known to agrology as bioturbation.

Many years later, in more recent times, when much of the soil surface has been degraded from the onslaught of chemicals and industrial agricultural processes, scientists have once again recognized that the presence and activities of earthworms have a dramatic effect on the soil habitat.

While eating the soil, the earthworm absorbs the nutrients it needs and casts off the rest. Under ideal conditions, earthworms are believed to eat and digest their entire weight in castings in a mere 24 hours. The nutrient content of the castings, which have gone through the earthworm’s digestive system, was found to have 5 times more soluble nitrogen, 7 times the soluble phosphorus, 11 times the soluble potassium, and 3 times the soluble magnesium plus a smaller amount of calcium. Most earthworms also mix the plant litter and organic matter into the soil, increasing the speed at which they decay and release nutrients into the soil. In these ways, earthworms recycle nutrients from dead plants and other soil organisms so that they can be used again.

Earthworms are also incomparable builders of soils. Their means of travel thorough the soil — pushing, tunnelling and eating their way through all kinds of organic matter. soil opens it up for the benefit of aeration and water seepage. The underground burrowing systems that they create increase the amount of water and air that reaches the plant roots and other soil organisms, helping their growth. Soil that has a good population of earthworms is always easier to work and plants seem to thrive in it. Thus earthworms have been given new sobriquets such as “farmers’ friends’ and ‘ecosystem engineers’.

Earthworms are getting their due. One of the quirky celebrations of these usually hidden-from-sight creatures is a festival held in some parts of England–the Festival of Worm Charming. While we know of snake charming and snake charmers, this one is certainly not part of a regular vocabulary.

Traditionally worm charming, worm grunting and worm fiddling refer to methods of attracting earthworms from the ground, mainly through creating vibrations on the ground.

Darwin was perhaps the first to study earthworm sensitivity or otherwise to light, warmth and sound. His experiments included placing lamps, candles and hot pokers close to them, blowing tobacco smoke over them, sounding a tin whistle and playing a piano close by and having his son play a bassoon loudly. He observed that it was only vibrations that caused them to become active.

Scientific experiments apart, using vibrations to bring worms to the surface has been traditionally used by fishermen to collect worms as bait. In recent years, this activity has taken the form of a competitive sport.

An International Worm Charming festival is held every year June in Devon in England. As with all competitions, this one has its rules and etiquette.

The aim of the competition is to “charm” the earthworms to come to the surface of the soil by creating vibrations on the ground. Traditionally this was done by sticking a rod called a ‘stob’ (like a pitchfork) in the dirt and smacking it with a simple rod known as a ‘rooping iron’. This competition allows different ways of creating the vibrations—tapping the soil with feet, “twanging” the ground with a fork in the soil, but strictly no digging.

The wormers are given a 3×3 meter square of land to fiddle, grunt, and charm their way to championship glory by collecting more worms than anyone else.

Each teams comprises 3 members: a Charmerer, a Pickerer and a Counterer.

Once all teams have found their plot everyone is allowed to begin “Worming Up”. This is doing whatever you need to do to get the worms out of the ground without digging, forking or pouring harmful liquids onto plots.

“Worming Up” lasts for 5 minutes after which the competition really gets underway.

15 minutes are allotted to all teams to get as many worms charmed out of the ground.

Any team or competitor caught cheating will be publicly humiliated and almost certainly disqualified.

The International Judges’ decision is final.

All worms must be returned unharmed to the ground after the competition.

The Worm Master presides over the Festival. The Official Cheat tempts entrants by offering them worms so that they can cheat. Old Father Worm Charming offers advice and guidance to would be worm charmers. Finally, there’s the International Judge who is the rule of law in all things to do with arbitration in worm charming disputes.

What a way to spend a sunny summer’s day! While India is known as the ‘land of snake charmers’, this festival may well lead England to be known as the ‘land of worm charmers’!

–Mamata

Celebrating the Sun

June 22, 2023 ~ millennialmatriarchs ~ Leave a comment

We have just crossed the Summer Solstice on 21 June. This is a major celestial event which results in the longest day and shortest night of the year in the Northern hemisphere. The word solstice is a combination of the Latin words ‘sol’ meaning sun and ‘stice’ meaning standstill. As the days lengthen, the sun rises higher and higher, till the movement of the Sun’s path north or south appears to stop in the sky before changing direction.

The summer solstice occurs when the tilt of Earth’s axis is most inclined towards the sun and is directly above the Tropic of Cancer. It officially marks the beginning of astronomical summer, which lasts until the autumn equinox falls on 23 September, when day and night will be of almost equal length.

In most parts of the Northern hemisphere winter is long, dark, cold, and harsh. Nature seems to slow down; the ground id frozen and often snow-covered for months, and many plants and animals go into hibernation mode. The spring season marks a slow awakening, with life starting to stir again. It is only around the middle of June that “summer” really sets in. In the days of yore, when people’s lives, especially agriculture, were closely linked with the cycles of nature, this ‘return of the sun’ was a time to celebrate the passing of the months of suffering and hardship, and the appreciation for the sun that would bring harvests.

Summer Solstice is one of the most ancient of human festivals. For the early societies the longest day had both practical and religious significance. It was a fixed point around which the planting and harvesting of crops could be planned, but also marked the spiritual side of the shifting of the seasons.

Many traditions are linked to this celebration, especially in different parts of Europe. In Ireland celebrations date back over 5000 years. In ancient times, people all over the northern hemisphere would celebrate this time with games, stories and feasting, and lighting of bonfires. Since time began, fire has been regarded as a symbol of the sun and so large fires were lit on this occasion

In ancient Greece, the summer solstice festival of Kronia to honour the god Cronius, the patron of agriculture. It was a day when class distinctions were abandoned and masters and slaves celebrated side-by-side. A tradition still followed by some is to trek up to the peak of Mt Olympus on this day.

In ancient Rome, the festival of Vestalia celebrated Vesta the goddess of hearth and home and family on this day. During the week of Vestalia, only women were permitted to enter the Vestal temple, and a cake was baked using consecrated waters from a spring considered sacred. Even today Italians celebrate the solstice as a time of new beginnings. La Festa di San Giovanni is a festival observed with similar rites of water and fire as the ones performed in ancient times.

Many Native American tribes celebrated the longest day of the year with a Sun Dance, while the Mayas and Aztecs used the day as a marker by which to build many of their central structures, so that the buildings would align perfectly with the shadows of the two solstices, summer and winter.

In Mexico’s Yucatan Peninsula, the main pyramid at Chichén Itzá, known as the Temple of Kukulcan, is constructed in such a way that during the Summer Solstice the sun casts perfect shadows on the south and west sides so that it looks to be split in two.

Better known are the Neolithic structures at Stonehenge in England. There is still a mystery about who constructed these and for what purpose. One theory is that it was built to worship deities of the Earth and the sun. Stonehenge was ingeniously designed built to align with the sun on the solstices. On the summer solstice, as the sun rises behind the heel stone, the ancient entrance to the stone circle, the ascending rays of sunlight align perfectly with a circle carved in stone in the centre of the monument. Even today thousands throng Stonehenge on summer solstice to witness this breath-taking sight and join in the celebrations that include dance and music.

While June signals the start of summer in many parts of the Northern hemisphere, in a country like India, this is the peak of summer. In a large part of the subcontinent, the sun blazes and the earth is parched; in some parts it heralds the onset of the monsoon rains that will gradually move northwards, quenching the thirst of the soil and its inhabitants. While we celebrate the change of seasons with many different festivals, we do not traditionally celebrate summer solstice as a festival

However, in the last few years India had taken the lead in adding a new day of celebration on 21 June. This is International Day of Yoga Day to coincide with the summer solstice. The day was proclaimed by the United Nations General Assembly in 2014, in recognition of the universal appeal of Yoga, owing to its demonstrated benefits towards immunity building and stress relief.

While yoga is a philosophy and science in itself, one aspect that struck me in the context of the summer solstice and the celebration of the sun, is the importance of Surya Namaskar or Sun Salutation in yoga. This is a set of a sequence of 12 yoga poses which provide a complete workout which has a positive impact on the body and the mind.

There are 12 mantras that accompany the surya namaskar postures, which praise the different qualities of the Sun God or Surya. These are:

Praise to the One:

Who is the friend of all

Who shines brightly and is filled with radiance

Who eliminated darkness and brings in light

Who is filled with brilliance and lustre

Who traverses the entire sky and is all-pervasive

Who provides nourishment and fulfils desires

The one with a golden-hued lustre

The one who shines with the light of innumerable rays

The one who is the son of the divine cosmic mother Aditi

The one who gives life

The one who is worthy of all glory

The one who is wise and illuminates the heavenly world.

While it is marked in different ways, and has different cultural contexts, Summer solstice is a reminder of the how vital the sun is for all life.

–Mamata

Don’t Stick Out!

June 6, 2023 ~ millennialmatriarchs ~ Leave a comment

That is surely the mantra of the Stick Insect! Known for one of the most effective camouflage strategies in Nature, the stick insect resembles the twigs among which it lives. It belongs to the order Phasmatodea, which includes the other master camouflaguer, the leaf insect. In fact, the name Phasmatodea derives from the Greek word phasma, meaning an apparition, phantom, or ghost.

The order Phasmatodea has over 3000 species in all—but how can one be sure, when many of them may be so well-hidden that they are impossible to detect! India has about 150 of these species. These creatures are related to grasshoppers, crickets, and mantises.

We were recently in the Western Ghats, where we encountered a beautiful Stick Insect. About 6 inches in length from the forward-legs to the tip of the body, it rode on a friend’s leg for a part of our walk through the wilderness. Going by stick insect standards, it was a only a moderately sized one, given that these insects range in length from the half-inch-long Timema cristinae of North America, to the 13-inch-long Phobaeticus kirbyi of Borneo. The latter measures over 21 inches with its legs outstretched, making it one of the world’s longest insects. Female stick insects are normally larger than their male counterparts. They are usually brown, green, or black, but some are brightly-coloured or striped. Some have wings. All continents except Antarctica have stick insects, though they are most abundant in the tropics.

The stick insect, also called the walking stick, spends most of its time up on trees, munching on leaves. When it senses a predator such as a bird approaching, it practically freezes, blending with the twigs and branches around it. In fact, studies suggest that some species have honed the ability to mimic the motion of twigs swaying in the wind to deceive even particularly observant predators. Stick insects are largely nocturnal and spend most of their days lying motionless on or under plants, and only coming out at night to feed. Unfortunately, the stick insects’ defences are not effective against bats which hunt by echo-location rather than sight, and these may be their most dangerous predators.

Even though their camouflage is extremely effective against most predators, they have several other tricks up their sleeves. Some species have evolved to release foul-smelling chemicals to deter predators, while others can secrete a liquid that temporarily blinds their enemies. Even if a predator spots a stick insect, it usually grabs a leg, which is the most prominent part of the insect. But that doesn’t bother our insect too much, because many of the species can detach the leg and scramble away—only to grow back the lost limb later.

And these master-tendencies start even at the egg stage! The females of some species lay eggs that look like plant seeds. This puts off carnivorous insects from eating the eggs!

Some of the stick insect species are today endangered, and the numbers of some are falling—thanks largely to habitat destruction and pesticide use. Another threat to these gentle insects is collection for the pet trade. Carausius morosus^,the ‘common’ or ‘Indian’ or ‘laboratory’ stick insect, which has its origins in India, is one of the species of Phasmatodea often kept as pets by schools and individuals.

Alas, however well a creature has evolved to protect itself against natural threats, there is little protection against humans!

–Meena

April Blooms

April 27, 2023 ~ millennialmatriarchs ~ 1 Comment

In the month of April, as our Indian spring advances into the long and blazing hot summer, we have been witness to a variety of showers. These are the copious shedding of flowers from the profusely blooming trees that, in a beautiful sequence of blossoming, are heralding the change in seasons.

The first colours to touch the magnificent canvas were the exquisite pink-mauve hues of the Tabebuia rosea tree. This is the Rosy trumpet or Tecoma pink tree which is appropriately called Basant Rani (Queen of Spring) in Hindi. Almost overnight, the nearly leafless tree exploded into a profusion of pinkish- white trumpet-like flowers that literally wrapped the tree in a frothy cloud. Cities like Bangalore reveled in the sight of the avenues of these rosy ranis, while in my city we had to make do with a chance sighting of one of the few and scattered specimens of Tabebuia. I had the privilege of enjoying this beautiful sight of the single tree on my morning walk route. The glory was short-lived. Almost as quickly as it burst into blossom, the tree shed its flowers, overnight carpeting the area under the canopy with the delicate and faded flowers. One morning we were feasting on the full canopy, and the next morning there was nothing left on the tree but bare branches. The first delicate hues had been transferred to the canvas of summer.

It was time to add more shades to the palette. It was the turn of the tiny eggshell-white neem flowers, and the slighter larger ivory karanj flowers to make their appearance. These emerged coyly amid the fresh foliage on their parent plants. The incredible shades of green, that defied definition or description, merged flawlessly with the blossoms. But while the leaves clung on firmly, the flowers, having played their brief but vital part in interaction with the birds and bees who thronged to feast on the nectar, began their graceful descent from the canopies, and carpeted the ground below. The neem flowers merged with the soil silently and unobtrusively. The karanj flowers made their presence felt with a crunch crunch sound when trod upon. The white faded from the canvas, even as the leaves took on deeper and darker shades of green.

As the summer sun gets stronger and the heat builds up, it is time for the palette to become more vibrant and vivid.

The first splash of colour is golden yellow. The Indian laburnum or Golden Shower tree is in bloom. Its masses of yellow blossoms cascade from the tree like waterfalls of molten gold. This usually nondescript tree starts with sprouting green-copper coloured leaves which are soon all but hidden in the mass of sprays of golden flowers. In the scorching sun, the blooming flowers are a magnet for a wide range of insects and birds which are important pollinating agents. The splash of gold shines and shimmers for a few weeks, but as the heat intensifies, the gold seems to gradually lose its gloss, and the hanging blossoms gently float to the ground to further fade as they prepare to merge with the earth.

As one yellow begins to fade, the palette is already being prepared with a more vibrant shade of yellow. It is time for the Copper Pod tree to enter the stage. With its wide spreading crown of many branches already covered in rich dark green feathery leaves, the contrast made by its turmeric yellow flowers is stunning against the pre-dawn grey sky. Unlike the flowers of the laburnum that cascade downwards in long clusters, the flowers of this tree bloom as dense bunches on long upright stalks at the ends of the branches. Individual flowers are small and delicate and have brown lines at the base of the petals.

It is these flowers that give the tree its other names like Yellow Flamboyant or Yellow Flame tree. It is also often called Peltophorum which is part of its botanical name Peltophorum pterocarpum. The name Copper Pod is derived from its fruit pods which are coppery brown at first and later become dark brown. The pods are 5-10 cm long and 2.5 cm broad with one or two seeds within. The shield-shaped pods give it yet another name of Rusty Shield bearer.

By whatever name we may choose to call it, this flamboyant tree is a great favourite for a wide variety of birds who use its abundant canopy for nesting, and who fill the air with an orchestra of calls with the break of dawn. They are joined by the silent activity of bats, squirrels and garden lizards who go about their business in the company of their feathered friends.

Even as the old flowers turn into pods, new flowers continue to bloom, as well as shed. The fallen flowers form a molten pool at its base. Unlike the laburnum, the flowers do not fade as they dry, and continue to attract attention even after they have left their lush green abode and travelled down to the earth.

With the swirling, sweeping brush strokes continuing to fill the canvas, it is time for the palette to ready the rich oranges and reds that will put the crowning strokes. The Gulmohar is ready to take the stage.

An elegant wide-spreading tree with delicate, fern-like leaves explodes in a riot of flame-red flowers. It really looks as if the tree is afire. Up close, each flower is made up of four spoon-shaped spreading petals which are a combination of scarlet and orange-red, and one upright petal which is marked with yellow and white. The flowers blend gracefully with the foliage making a breath-taking sight that stands out not only against the lightening early morning and darkening late evening sky, but equally in the yellow-white haze of the midday sun. The flowers drift to the ground, not as the downpours of the other trees, but sprinkle the earth with a delicate pattern in shades of crimson and scarlet.

Nature’s palette has artfully mixed and matched hues and shades, light and shadow, form and function. The Indian summer masterpiece is complete!

–Mamata

Purnima Devi: Saviour of the Storks

April 20, 2023 ~ millennialmatriarchs ~ Leave a comment

Purnima was only five years old when she had to go and live with her grandmother. The little girl missed her parents and siblings, but her grandmother who had a small farm on the banks of the Brahmaputra river in Assam started taking her to the nearby paddy fields and water bodies, and showing her and telling her about the different birds that could be seen in large numbers. She also taught her traditional bird songs that described not only the beauty but the importance of birds in people’s lives and culture.

The seeds that were planted in those fields took deep roots. Purnima not only fell in love with birds, but would also go on to devote her professional life to studying and protecting birds. After her Master’s degree in Zoology, Purnima decided that she wanted to focus on a bird species that she had grown up seeing, but whose numbers seemed to be on the decline. This was the Greater adjutant storks—large majestic birds named for their stiff-legged, almost military gait. These carnivorous birds are “cleaners of the ecosystem” and play a significant role in the food chain in terms of nutrient cycling and ecosystem regulation,

Purnima started her doctoral research on Greater Adjutants in 2007. As she studied their nesting behaviour, Purnima realized that the birds needed tall trees where they could make their platform nests. But with rapid disappearance of natural forests and wetlands, these birds had to seek nesting trees wherever they could find them. The only remaining large trees were in the villages, close to the homes of villagers. But these birds were far from welcome there.

Hargila (which means ‘bone swallower’) as the storks are locally called are scavengers and bring bones and dead animals to their nests, these often drop to the ground. Along with the birds’ foul-smelling droppings, these birds are not the most pleasant of neighbours to have. Villagers even cut down huge old trees in their backyards to prevent these birds from nesting. The birds were also perceived as bad omens or disease carriers. With the declining natural tree cover, and the hostility of the villagers, the survival of Adjutant storks was in jeopardy.

In 2007, while she was still a researcher, Purnima was present when a large tree was cut down, bringing down the nest along with nine chicks. Her attempts to explain to the villagers about the ecological significance of such scavenger birds, were met with ridicule by the local people. One local resident even scoffed her saying that she should work in his house to clean up the storks’ stinking messes. Rather than being put off by this, Purnima chose to abandon her academic research and to focus instead on working with the local communities to change their perceptions towards this bird.

Purnima decided to start by reaching out to the women, who did not often have a voice, but who could potentially influence the entire family. Her first step was to gain access to the nests which were often in trees on family land. This was initially by getting close to the individual women who were the homemakers. Purnima then started to get the women together through common events such as cooking competitions. She began by appealing to their maternal instincts by stressing the importance of safe nesting sites for the birds, while also discussing their ecological importance. She told them that when our children are young they also make a mess at home, but we still love and protect them. More and more women started coming to these meetings, and joined in the efforts to protect nesting sites and rehabilitate chicks that had fallen from the nests. They organised ‘baby showers’ to celebrate newly-hatched chicks; they revived the traditional songs, poems, festivals and plays that featured these birds.

Purnima realized that for sustained community engagement they needed to take ownership. She helped to provide the women with weaving looms and yarn so that they could create and sell textiles with motifs of the hargila. This initiative provided livelihood options, supported women to become entrepreneurs, and boosted their sense of pride and ownership, as well as raising the profile of the stork. Today the “Hargila Army” consists of over 10,000 women. The Hargila army members call their leader Purnima hargila baideu, or stork sister. The power of community conservation is evident. This has also led to the involvement of the local government departments to recognize, and in some ways support the community efforts.

Since Purnima Devi Burman started her conservation programme, the number of nests in the three villages of Kamrup district in Assam, where she first started her efforts have risen from 28 to more than 250, making this the largest breeding colony of Greater adjutant storks in the world. In 2017, Barman began building tall bamboo nesting platforms for the endangered birds to hatch their eggs. Her efforts were rewarded a couple of years later when the first Greater adjutant stork chicks were hatched on these experimental platforms.

Safeguarding single nests is not enough, the storks’ habitats also need to be restored. The Hargila Army has helped communities to plant tens of thousands of saplings near stork nesting trees and wetland areas in the hope they will support future stork populations.

The Greater adjutant stork is the second-rarest stork species in the world. It is also listed as ‘Endangered’ as per the IUCN Red List which notes that there are only about 1200 of these storks remaining in the world. The dramatic decline in their population has been partly driven by the destruction of their natural habitats, especially wetlands, and the ruthless destruction of their nesting trees. Assam in India is home to the largest population (around 1000) of these birds. This is in no small measure due to the efforts of Purnima Devi Burman and her Hargila Army.

Purnima Devi’s efforts have also received wider recognition. She has received several awards. She was the recipient of the 2022 UNEP Award for Champion of the Earth for Entrepreneurial Vision. The annual awards are the highest environmental honour that the UNEP confers on individuals and organisations whose actions have a “transformative impact” on the environment.

Purnima Devi was recognized for “pioneering conservation work that empowered thousands of women, creating entrepreneurs and improving livelihoods while bringing the Greater adjutant stork back from the brink of extinction. Her work has shown that conflict between humans and wildlife can be resolved to the benefit of all. By highlighting the damaging impact that the loss of wetlands has had on the species who feed and breed on them, she reminds us of the importance of protecting and restoring ecosystems.”

As we mark Earth Day on 22 April, this is a good time to celebrate such Champions of the Earth who have made it their life’s mission to Protect and Conserve.

–Mamata