Category: history

A Week of Celebrations

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Just as the January festivities that heralded the New Year have waned, the early days of February have their own set of celebrations. From Galantines Day and Valentines Day, to Basant Panchami, to the Chinese New Year, this is a week that celebrates new beginnings.

Meena has written about the history of the first two days. The third day, Basant Panchami falls on the fifth day of the Hindu month of Magha. This year this happens to be on 14 February. This auspicious day, marks the first day of spring in the Indian seasonal almanac. This is also the day to pay homage to Saraswati, the goddess of learning, music, arts and wisdom. Homes are decorated with marigold flowers and rice flour rangoli, special food is cooked and distributed to family and neighbours after the traditional puja to invoke year-long blessings of the Goddess for knowledge and progress. Yellow is the colour that marks this celebration of spring—from wearing yellow clothes to the myriads of marigold ornamentations.

Celebrations of another spring festival in another part of the world also commenced this week with joy and fervor. This is the Chinese New Year, which like Basant Panchami, is determined by the lunar calendar. These celebrations, which last for 16 days, commenced on 10 February this year. The Chinese Spring Festival was originally a ceremonial day to pray to gods for a good planting and harvest season. As in all agrarian societies, the entire year was dependent on a good harvest. People also prayed to their ancestors, for their blessings. Even today, Chinese New Year heralds a time of renewal, prosperity, and festivity, not just in China, but for Chinese communities across the world. Celebrations symbolize fresh beginnings and a renewal of familial ties, and it is customary for family members from far and wide to travel to meet up for reunions and gatherings.

The Chinese zodiac follows a twelve-year cycle with each year assigned to an animal. The twelve animals are arranged in this order: Rat, Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Goat, Monkey, Rooster, Dog, and Pig. 2024 is the Year of the Dragon according to this zodiac. The dragon holds significant cultural importance in Chinese folklore. The Chinese people deeply cherish the dragon which is believed to represent strength, wisdom and good fortune. The dragon, this year’s Chinese zodiac sign represents power, magic, and the pursuit of one’s desires. Each animal in the zodiac is thought to influence the personality traits and fate of those born that year. Individuals born in the Year of the Dragon are thought to be blessed with good luck.

As in all traditional societies, there are a number of customs that mark the special days. Unlike most festivals which are preceded by a special round of ‘spring cleaning’, in the run-up to Chinese New Year’s day, traditionally bathing was not allowed on this day, as also sweeping  throwing of garbage, a few days prior to this day. This is to make sure that all the good luck is not swept or washed away! On the other hand there is a designated day before the New Year which is dedicated to cleaning so as to sweep the bad luck away and make room for the good. A delicate balance indeed! There are a few other taboos during the New Year period, once again to guard against any ‘seeping changes’. No cutting of hair or nails, no use of sharp objects, no breaking no swearing, cursing or saying unlucky words like ‘death’ or ‘sickness’.

While Indian spring festival is marked by the exuberance and cheer of yellow, it is red that marks the heralding of a new year in China. Houses are decorated with red lanterns, strings of red chilli peppers (real or fake), and red decorations on walls and doors. Red clothes are also a part of the Spring Festival wardrobe. It is believed that the colour red will help to deter evil and demons. Children traditionally receive money in red packets or pockets are they are called. These symbolize the transfer of good fortune from elders to the youngsters. The practice has its origins in folklore.

As the legend goes an evil spirit named Sui would appear on New Year’s Eve and pat the heads of sleeping children three times. This would make the children sick. One couple was playing with their child at bedtime with some coins and left the coins on red paper near the child as it slept. That night when the sprit Sui came it was frightened away by the coins glinting on the red paper. Thus began the tradition of giving children coins in red covers on New Year’s Eve, to guard against evil spirits and for their good health and fortune through the year. The tradition continues to this day.

The other tradition which is closely linked to the celebrations is the bursting of crackers, just as Diwali celebrations are marked in India. This one too has a legend attached. Another mythical beast named Nian who preyed on people and livestock, used to visit villages on New Year’s Eve, forcing people to hide in fear in their houses or escape to the mountains. There are two versions of the story. In one, a young boy burst crackers and scared away the monster. In another, a beggar took refuge in an old woman’s house and promised to save her from the monster. He pasted red papers on the doors and windows and burst crackers at midnight, both of which frightened away the monster. Thus bursting of firecrackers at midnight on New Year’s Eve and again on New Year’s morning has continued to be a tradition associated with this festival.

Ironically, due to safety reasons and air pollution concerns, the Chinese government has banned firecrackers in many cities in China. However there has been a lot of public pressure to allow people to celebrate an ages-old tradition of welcoming the New Year with the sound and light of firecrackers.

On another note, the Chinese government is hoping that the declining fertility rate and falling population numbers which has reached worrisome levels will get a boost with a flood of new babies born in the Year of the Dragon. According to the traits associated with the Chinese zodiac children born in this year will be imbued with strength, intelligence, confidence, and success. Thus it is hoped that parents will hope to conceive and deliver dragon babies in this year!

Whatever the mode of celebration, spring marks new beginnings, hope and freshness. Celebrating red and yellow every day of the year.

–Mamata

On A Musical Note: Of Earworms and Mondegreens

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Who hasn’t, at some time or the other, had a song or piece of music stuck in their heads, which just won’t go away! You get up in the morning, and suddenly you find yourself humming a tune. It follows you around the house, to the office, on the drive back home. It serenades you inside your head through dinner. And sometimes it is still there when you wake up in the morning!

Earworm
Credit: http://www.bu.edusynapse

This is what is called an earworm. Extremely irritating, but nothing to worry about. It happens to most of us at some time in life. A recent study of American college students found that 97% had experienced an earworm in the past month. Other studies have found similar results.

And don’t worry how long an earworm troubles you. Though the typical length is 10 to 30 minutes, research shows that for about 20% folks, the earworm lasts an hour or more. And some unlucky folks have been stuck with one for a year or even longer!

The term earworm comes from the German “ohrwurm,” which  is defined as a “cognitive itch” or “the inability to dislodge a song and prevent it from repeating itself in one’s head”. Several terms have been coined for this, including stuck song syndrome, sticky music, musical imagery repetition, intrusive musical imagery etc. The semi-official term is ‘involuntary musical imagery’, or INMI.

It has been a serious area of study since 1885, and scientists hope to get insights into the functioning of the brain. Several major universities have been undertaking studies into the phenomenon.

Sufferers try various ways to get rid of an earworm– by thinking of another song, singing the earworm song all the way through to its end, or taking up other tasks that require focussed concentration. But trying to get rid of an earworm may be counter-productive. One study has found that the harder people fight to quiet an earworm, the longer it tends to harass them!

Something that is not irritating to you, but may be to others if you sing, is a mondegreen. A mondegreen is a word or phrase in a song or poem that you get wrong–the result of mishearing something recited or sung. Incorrectly heard lyrics are called mondegreens.

The origin of the word itself is from an instance of such mishearing. In a column by journalist Sylvia Wright in the 1950s, she wrote about a Scottish folksong The Bonny Earl of Morray that she had listened to. Wright misheard the lyric “Oh, they have slain the Earl o’ Morray and laid him on the green” as “Oh, they have slain the Earl o’ Morray and Lady Mondegreen.” And ever since, such mishearings have been referred to as mondegreens!

The scientific explanation goes as follows: Hearing is a two-step process. First sound waves make their way through the ear and into the auditory cortex of the brain. On receiving the signal, the brain tries to make sense of the noise.  Mondegreens occur when, somewhere between the sound and the sense-making, communication breaks down. You hear the same sound as another person, but your brain doesn’t interpret it the same way.

Sometimes we may just mishear something because it is noisy, the phone signal is weak, or there are other extraneous factors. Or it may be because the speaker is speaking in an unfamiliar accent or is mumbling.  So the sound becomes ambiguous and our brain tries its best to resolve the ambiguity—and gets it wrong.

Another common cause of mondegreens is the oronym–word strings in which the sounds can be logically divided in different ways. This is similar to what we call sandhi vichhed in Sanskrit—the process of analysing and separating compound words into their component parts. Oronyms result in a wrong parsing of sounds when context or prior knowledge is missing.

Yet another reason could be letters and letter combinations which sound alike, and without a context, we can go wrong, and one sound can be mistaken for the other. An example often given to illustrate this is, :“There’s a bathroom on the right” being heard as “there’s a bad moon on the rise”.

When we hear a sound, a number of related words are activated all at once in our heads. These words could be those that sound the same, or have component parts that are the same. Our brain then chooses the one that makes the most sense. In this choosing, we are more likely to select a word or phrase that we’re more familiar with. An oft cited example is that if you’re a member of a boat crew, you’re far more likely to select “row” instead of “roe” from an ambiguous sentence. If you’re a chef, the opposite is likely.

Some mondegreens become the word!  For instance, the word orange was such a widespread mispronunciation of “a naranj” (from Persian and Sanskrit), that it became the official name of the fruit! One can think of any number of place-names which the English mangled, for instance!

Bollywood songs of course have their share of mondegreens. Though not systematically documented, some common ones identified include:

From the song Hawa Hawai (Mr. India): ‘Bijli girane mai hoon aayi’ being heard as ‘Bijli ki rani mai hoon aayi’; and from the song Banno (Tanu weds Mannu) ‘Banno tera swagger laage sexy’ being heard as ‘Banno tera sweater laage sexy’.

Raghu has these examples from his childhood (which he attributes to the poor sound quality of radio transmissions of those times):

Hearing ‘Yeh manzar dekh kar jaana’ (from the film Around the World) as ‘Yeh mandir dekh ke kar jaana’ (could be a jingle for a recent event!); and ‘Ahsan tera hoga mujh par’ (from the film Junglee)  as ‘Ahsan tera ho gaa mujh par’!

The only request: If you have a mondegreen, don’t sing the song aloud. You may give someone a more than usually horrible earworm!

–Meena






Mules: More Than Just Beasts of Burden

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The mule has always borne the brunt of uncomplimentary analogies. Stubborn as a mule, mulish behavior… a synonym for obstinate, pig-headed, refractory, headstrong, wilful, and generally self-willed. This uncomplaining beast of burden has hardly received its fair share of credit. And yet, over centuries it is these silent plodders and sloggers that have been the backbone of many military campaigns.

Mule trains were also the primary means of transporting goods across difficult mountainous terrains, especially in Central Asia. They were ideal pack animals to accompany the trading caravans. In Mughal India Emperor Akbar popularized the use of mules in place of oxen which were commonly used then. He kept stables for mules and expected his officers to keep a certain number of mules. The British were not as impressed with the local mules and imported large numbers of these sturdy workhorses from South Africa and Argentina.

The tables were turned during World War II. By this time the British army was beginning to phase out Animal Transport Companies which used to be an integral part of the army. But the conditions in France where the war was raging required transportation of supplies to remote areas where mechanized vehicles could not reach. Thus the decision was taken that each division in the British Expeditionary Force in France should have an animal transport company made up of mules. 2700 mules were shipped from Bombay to Marseilles; they reached without any losses and successfully operated in France through the bitterly cold winter conditions.

What makes the mule such a sturdy animal? But even before exploring that, what makes a mule?   

A mule is a cross between two species of equine: the horse or pony (Equus caballus) and the domestic donkey (Equus asinus). The word ‘mule’ is generally used for the cross of male donkey and female horse. The cross between a female donkey and male horse, is known as a ‘hinny’. Usually mules do not breed naturally, but are specifically bred. Properly-bred mules are handsomely rugged creatures, larger than donkeys, but more solid than horses, giving them a distinctly different look.

The hybrid of horse and donkey makes for a sturdy combination. Mules are stronger than horses (weight for weight), and have tremendous stamina and resilience. They can sustain on frugal diets. They are exceptionally sure-footed, and have very hard hooves, which enables them to successfully negotiate difficult terrains. Their hide is thicker than that of horses so they can wear a harness and carry heavier loads for longer stretches. They can withstand extremes of temperature, and are relatively less prone to lameness and illness.

The stubborn temperament that makes for the many analogies is in fact more than just a mule being mulish! The obstinacy is a manifestation of a mule’s talent for self-preservation. A mule instinctively follows the path of great care when treading on uncertain terrain. It will instinctively balk when its feel its life is threatened. In looking after itself, it also takes care of the cargo it is laden with, and therefore can be trusted to deliver its cargo, including humans, safely.

The mule’s reputation for obstinacy and bad-temper is not a manifestation of its thick skinned appearance, but on the contrary an indication of its wary nature. A mule is very defensive until it trusts a person, and will kick out as a protective measure, not an act of aggression. Whatever the case, mules kick fast, hard and accurately, and hence are best kept at a safe distance till they are comfortable with what they need to do. The mule cannot be forced to do anything, but must be persuaded to cooperate! And till this happens, the tug of war between man and mule will continue, as will the “stubborn as a mule” epithet.

Mules are highly intelligent, perhaps even more than horses. They are very quick to learn, and have an instinctive grasp of a situations. They just need the right handling. A badly trained and handled mule can be a real problem. A well-trained and handled mule can be obliging, kind, patient, persevering, calm, tolerant, sensible, loyal, affectionate, even playful. Not words usually associated with its legendary truculence!  

Little wonder then that mules have continued to be an important component of the Indian Army. They are invaluable at high altitudes where the road connectivity is very bad, and the terrain impassable in the severe winters. The mules are the lifeline for the army, carrying essential supplies of food, construction material, and arms and ammunition to remote border posts. A mule can carry a load of 100 kg and can cover a distance of 40 km in a day. Mules are often described as the unsung heroes of the Indian Army.

The Indian Army has more than 6000 mules who tirelessly carry out these challenging missions. The mules are divided into 15 units. They are categorized on the basis of the loads they carry. The mules assigned the task of carrying heavy arms and ammunitions are part of the Mule Artillery, while other supplies ranging from food and water, to medicine is transported by the Mule General Service. Each mule has one or two handlers, depending on the load and terrain. There is also a nursing staff with them as they move from place to place. They are fed a fixed ration of 2.55 kg of barley, I kg of chana and 7 gm linseed per day.

Pedongi: A celebrated mule

The recognition of the critical role of mules has been largely overlooked by the army. However, there are some legends shared about exceptional mules and their feats. Perhaps the best known one is that of Pedongi, a mule who carried out her duties in the 1971 war unfazed by the crossfire. She was part of an Animal Transport column captured by the Pakistani army, but managed to escape and cross the border back to an Indian post, carrying Pakistani munitions on her back. Pedongi was honoured by the Indian Army for her bravery, and continued to serve at high altitudes for many years. Pedongi entered the Guinness World Records as the longest serving military mule when she died in 1998. Her contribution continues to be remembered in the Central Army Service Corps officer’s mess lounge which has been named Pedongi in her memory.

Recently there is news that the Indian Army plans to disband its entire Army Transport fleet by 2025 and replace it with drones–unmanned systems that would carry loads in high-altitude areas. It has already reduced its numbers of mountain artillery mules and plans to retire the general service mules. The retired mules will receive commendation cards for their service with the Indian military. The retirement of mules will also mark the end of unique links between man and beast that have contributed to the security of our nation for over a century.  Truly the end of an era!

–Mamata

Fighting the Disease, Fighting the Stigma: Marking Leprosy Day

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Humanity spent a few years in fear of Covid. A few decades were spent in fear of AIDS. But millennia have been spent in fear of leprosy.

Leprosy is oft-mentioned in texts of yore. In Hindu mythology, it is often the result of a curse. Samba, son of Krishna and Jambavati, was cursed with the disease by his own father for constantly harassing his stepmothers (even otherwise, he seems to have been a pretty painful character). Later, when Krishna learnt that Samba was himself led into the misdemeanor by Narada, he wanted to take back the curse, but could not. Krishna advised Samba to pray to the Sun God for a cure. Samba did so—in fact, the Sun Temple at Konark and Multan (the temple does not exist and its exact location is unknown, but may have been in present-day Pakistan) are supposed to have been built by him. As a result of his devotions, he was cured.

The tale of Reunka is a fairly typical misogynistic one. She was the devoted wife of Sage Jamadagni, cursed with leprosy by her husband for a momentary lapse—for a moment being attracted to the Gandharva King. She was advised to bathe in Jogala Bhavi a nearby lake, and was cured. But sadly, when she returned home, her husband was still furious, and commanded his sons to kill her. The first four refused and were cursed by their father to die, but the fifth, Parashuram (yes, he who was an Avatar), obeyed his father. Jamadagni, pleased with Parashuram, granted him a boon. Good sense prevailed and Parashuram begged for the revival of his mother and brothers. A repentant Jamadagni is supposed to have foresworn anger, and lived happily with his wife ever after.

Leprosy also plays a key role in the Mahabharatha. Shantanu, father of Bhisma, Chitrangada and Vishitravirya came to the throne because his elder brother Devapi had leprosy. If it had not been for Shantanu’s attraction first to Ganga and then to Satyavati, the Mahabharat war may never have taken place.

Islamic and Biblical references to leprosy also abound, and Jesus is supposed to have cured the disease with his touch.

Through the ages, leprosy was feared as a curse of the Gods, and the only salvation was a boon from them. The social ostracism and rejection by friends and family was as much a suffering as the disease itself.

Gandhiji Leprosy
Gandhiji viewing what is presumed to be Mycobacterium leprae

In the last few centuries, many brave souls have worked hard for the relief of these sufferings. Gandhiji was at the forefront of the fight against the fear of leprosy. Pictures of him tending to Shri Parchure Sastry, a learned man whom Gandhiji respected very much, are often seen. Sastry even made his home in Sewagram with the agreement of all the Ashram inmates.

Vinobha Bhave was another Gandhian leader who worked in this field. He and Manoharji Diwan established Kushthadham (Leprosy Centre) at Dattapur in 1936.

And of course, the selfless work of Baba Amte and his wife Sadhantai, is legendary. He was a Gandhian and active in the freedom struggle. But how he came to leprosy work is interesting. He encountered a leprosy patient one day, and it is the fear and revulsion he felt that led to deep introspection, and the decision to devote his life to this work. He not only wanted to help the patients, but also create a society free of “Mental Leprosy”, ie., the fear and misunderstandings associated with disease. He founded three ashrams for patients and devoted his life to them. The Gandhi Peace Prize and the Ramon Magsaysay award were only a few recognitions of his service.

Dr. Noshir Antia is another individual who contributed enormously to the rehabilitation of leprosy patients. He is known as the father of Plastic Surgery in India and established the first department in the country devoted to this—the Tata Department of Plastic Surgery at the J.J. Hospital in Mumbai. . His interest in this subject began when he saw the disfigurement of leprosy patients, and started to pioneer surgical techniques for correcting these. Apart from surgery, he also started research facilities to study the disease and fought against the discrimination against the sufferers of this disease, and for their rehabilitation. Dr. Antia passed away in 2007, but his legacy continues not only through the generations of doctors and surgeons trained by him, but also through the NGO he founded—the Foundation for Research in Community Health

World Leprosy Day is observed on the last Sunday of January. In India, with a slight tweak, and to mark Gandhiji’s contribution in this field, it is observed on 30 January, coinciding with his death anniversary.   

The theme for the day this year is “Beat Leprosy” which calls attention to the dual objectives of the day: to eradicate the stigma associated with leprosy and to promote the dignity of people affected by the disease.

As Vinobhaji put it, the critical thing is to beat mental leprosy—the fear of leprosy. And our experience of recent diseases has shown us that fear is not the way to react to any disease. Scientific understanding and empathy are!

–Meena

Two books which may be of interest:

‘Autobiography of a Doctor’ is Noshir Antia’s tale of his life.

‘Covenant of Water’ by Verghese Abraham has leprosy, its treatment and the social discrimination as an important theme.

Window to the World: National Geographic

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They were probably our first glimpse of the wonders of the natural world. As children we eagerly awaited the arrival of the yellow cover magazines with their breathtaking pictures. My father, a lover of maps found a wealth of meticulous cartography in the maps that often accompanied the magazines. The glossy pages with fantastic photographs were the hallmark of the National Geographic Magazine. The magazine has maintained the same level of excellence for the last 136 years!

This month marks the important milestones that led to the launch of this enduring visual record of the world. This began with the founding of the National Geographic Society. The journey started in early January 1888 when a small group of gentlemen prominent in the scientific and intellectual circles of Washington DC received an invitation that read: Dear Sir: You are invited to be present at a meeting to be held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, Friday evening, January 13, at 8 o’clock, for the purpose of considering the advisability of organizing a society for the increase and diffusion of geographic knowledge.

On the given date, 33 gentlemen who were sufficiently intrigued by the invitation to brave the fog and rain, gathered at the Cosmos Club. The guiding spirit leading the discussion was Boston lawyer Gardiner Greene Hubbard, supported by explorers John Wesley Powell and Adolphus Greely, as well as geographer Henry Gannett. The topic of discussion was the organization of a society for the increase and diffusion of geographic knowledge. One week later on 20 January the second meeting had twice the original number of participants, who agreed to incorporate themselves as a geographical society, and just one week later the Certificate of Incorporation of the National Geographic Society was formally signed on 27 January 1888. Interestingly, the average age of the founding group was around 40 years, and half of these were in their late 20s to 30s, several working for the US Geological Survey or the US Coast and Geodetic Survey. And, they were all male. Ironically, only one member was a journalist, and there is no photograph of any of the three occasions that led to the birth of the iconic magazine. National Geographic Magazine started publication in October 1888 as the official journal of the National Geographic Society.

The original issues were all text articles. The magazine began the transition from a text-oriented publication to including pictorial content with its January 1905 issue which had several full-page pictures of Tibet. By 1908 more than half the magazine’s pages were photographs.  

One of the founding objectives of the non-profit Society was to fund science and exploration across the planet. The first scientific expedition supported by the Society was to survey and map the Mount St. Elias region in North America, which led to the discovery of Mount Logan, Canada’s highest peak. Initiated in 1890, and led by explorer Israel Russell, this marked the beginning of thousands of explorer-led National Geographic expeditions. Significant among the early expeditions supported by the National Geographic Society were Robert Peary’s which was the first to reach the North Pole in 1909, and expeditions (1912-1915) to excavate Machu Pichu the lost city of the Incas in the Peruvian Andes. Since the first expedition, the Society has provided more than 15,000 grants to explorers to work across the world.

The earliest natural-colour underwater pictures were taken by the National Geographic staff photographers in 1926. The magazine continued to bring to the readers hidden deep sea treasures with a series of articles by Jacques-Yves Cousteau in the mid-1950s, including the deepest undersea photos from 25,000 under the sea in 1956. From deep sea to outer space, the National Geographic Society flag was carried by John Glenn on the first US orbital space fight in June 1962; and it reached the moon with the Apollo 11 astronauts in July 1969. The exploration of forest ecosystems also got Society support, with funding to Jane Goodall and Dian Fossey’s intensive work with chimpanzees and mountain gorillas in the African jungles. Over the decades, the Society has continued to support explorations in varied ecosystems, and in all spheres from ocean depths to outer space. The discoveries of these incredible missions are shared through the National Geographic Magazine, opening windows and vistas to millions of armchair travellers across the globe. The excellence of standards of journalism and photography are backed with the passion and commitment of documenting the wonders of history, science, anthropology and nature, while also bringing to the fore serious environmental and human rights issues.

The National Geographic Magazine has continued to inspire generations for over a century, reaching out to 60 million readers worldwide each month, including 40 local-language editions. Keeping step with changing times and technology, in January 2001 National Geographic Channel was launched on cable and satellite television in the United States. The channel has expanded the scope of visual storytelling. Nat Geo continues to provide new digital experiences to find new ways of documenting the world and allowing readers to interact with content. In a rapidly changing world, the Society has stayed true to its original mission ‘to pursue and celebrate exploration, scientific excellence, education, and unforgettable storytelling’. National Geographic has remained a vibrant, relevant, world-class brand at the forefront of exploration and knowledge. However, the changing times are making their mark felt even here. Until 2015, the magazine was completely owned and managed by the National Geographic Society. Since 2019 the Walt Disney Company has taken over controlling interest. In June 2023, National geographic announced that it will focus on digital publication and subscribers. The magazine also laid off all of its staff writers, shifting to an entirely freelance-based writing model. Starting 2024, the hard copy will no longer be available on newsstands, while old subscribers will receive hard copies till their subscription runs.

Truly the end of an era. And a time to revisit the family collection of National Geographic Magazines (dating back to the mid-1950s) and enjoy the nostalgic savour of rediscovering the wonders of the world.   

–Mamata

Kuldhara: Ghosts of the Past, Vandals of the Present

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Kuldhara is on the tourist map of Jaisalmer district. On the way to Sam where the desert starts, is this ‘ghost town’ abandoned by its inhabitants about 200 years ago. The history of the town goes back to the 13th century when it was first settled by Paliwals, people from Pali district. Over the centuries, it grew into a prosperous place, with about 400 houses and over 1500 inhabitants at the peak. It had a pond, Udhansar, excavated by one of the first inhabitants, and at least one temple dedicated to Vishnu, as well as several wells and a step-well. It is actually a planned city, with proper layouts and a place for everything.

Till it was suddenly abandoned. It is not clear why the inhabitants left, but many reasons are given. Was it dwindling water supplies? Was it an earthquake? Or, more dramatically, was it the unwanted pursuit of one of the beautiful girls of the town by a local minister?

Well, whatever the reason or combination of them, it is a fact that people started leaving the place, probably not fleeing overnight as the tourist guides will tell you, but probably in trickles.

The mud-brick houses, temple and various other structures still stand in fairly good condition. Local legend of course goes that the township is haunted, and visitors are assured it is a dangerous place at night! The legend also says that the Paliwals while leaving the place, placed a curse on it, saying that anyone who tried to occupy it would meet dire consequences. All this led to its attracting tourists.

Kuldhara

The Rajasthan government decided to develop this as a tourist site around 2015. This is definitely a strategic move, given that it is just 18 kms away from Jaisalmer, and makes for a comfortable half-day trip, and it had already gained notoriety for its ghosts.

It is well-maintained by the Archeological Survey of India. There are of course guides. And importantly, fairly clean toilets. To this day, the neighbouring villages insist the gates be closed in the evening, so the Kuldhara ghosts don’t wander into their houses!

Of course, a lot more could be done—more signage, re-creation of a typical house, visualization of the town as it must have originally been, a more serious delve into the reasons for its abandonment, etc.

All of this will hopefully be done by the authorities in due course.

But an extremely disturbing incident that happened last week brings to fore the need for us as citizens and tourists to be more responsible. Newspapers report on a video that went viral. The video shows two tourists holding hands and kicking down the ancient brick wall of one the houses in Kuldhara. They were apparently doing this for putting up the video on social media.

The police are waiting for a formal complaint to be filed before taking action. Hopefully, this will be done fairly soon and action will be taken. The penalty for those who deface structures of national and historical importance has fortunately been enhanced in 2010 vide an amendment to the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act. Now, such vandals will have to face imprisonment up to 2 years and/or a fine of up to Rs. 1 lakh.

Sadly, very few cases actually come to the stage where the punishment is given. Often, even the FIR is not registered—though in this case, the police seem to be ready to do this.

Kuldhara is just the latest example—from tourists knocking down pillars at Hampi to graffiti in Golconda, we have a long sad story of vandalism at cultural heritage sites.  If our monuments are to have a chance, punishment in these cases needs to swift, exemplary and well-publicized. Maybe there needs to be a sign outside the monument as to how someone tried to vandalize and what punishment they got!

And of course our educational institutions need to instill respect for our cultural and natural heritage, and strongly din home the need to take the greatest care of them.

The responsibility rests with each and every one of us.

­­–Meena

Fireworks: Sound and Light Show

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If bells are the traditional symbols that ring out the old, and ring in the new, perhaps the other thing that, across the world, opens the New Year with the dazzle of light and sound, is firecrackers. From the first display that lights up the sky in New Zealand, till 12 hours later, the sparkle that ushers in a new year in South America, firecrackers are almost a universal symbol of celebration of special occasions.

The history of fireworks goes back almost 2000 years ago, and the story of the first combination of crackle and bang, began almost as an accident. People in China used to throw bamboo stalks into the fire; the overheating of hollow air pockets in the bamboo would cause them to explode with a bang. The Chinese believed that this bang would ward off evil spirits. These are believed to be the first natural crackers. The human intervention began when, as the story goes, a Chinese alchemist mixed three common kitchen ingredients: sulfur, charcoal and potassium nitrate (saltpeter, a food preservative) and heated these over the fire, to make black flaky powder that ignited with a loud bang. The local people called this fascinating black powder huo yao (fire chemical). This was the first crude formulation of what came to be known to the rest of the world as ‘gunpowder’. People began to experiment further with the use of this powder. It was inserted into hollow bamboo tubes which were thrown into the fire. The ignited powder produced gases that caused so much pressure to build up in the tube that it blasted open with a loud bang. The first basic manmade ‘firecracker’ was born. In time the bamboo stalks were replaced with paper tubes, and instead of throwing the tubes into the fire, people added fuses made from tissue paper so that these could be lit from the outside.  

Firecrackers became an integral part of all Chinese celebrations—festivals, weddings and religious rituals. In the meanwhile the Chinese also realized that the black powder could be put to other, less ceremonial, uses. They attached the firecrackers to arrows that they shot at their enemies. Thus began the use of gunpowder in warfare that continues, in more sophisticated forms, to this day.

The knowledge of fireworks using gunpowder began to travel westwards with traders and travelers. It is believed that Marco Polo, one on of his many trips to China brought back this invention to the Middle East, from where the European crusaders brought it to Europe. An English scholar Roger Bacon is believed to be the first European to have analyzed the black powder from China, as he was intrigued why the mixture of ingredients exploded rather than burned. He also recognized that this quality of the powder could potentially be very dangerous, so he wrote the formula in secret code, to keep it secret as long as possible. Despite Bacon’s best efforts, Europeans discovered the formula, and a variety of weapons using gunpowder were developed. By the sixteenth century gunpowder completely transformed the nature of medieval warfare where chain armour and castle moats could not withstand the power and penetration of muskets and cannons.

While firepower was being used to develop weapons for warfare, the sound of fireworks began to become part of celebrations and festivals in Europe by the fifteenth century. It is the Italians who added the spectacle of light and colour by developing aerial shells that launched upwards and exploded into a fountain of colour lighting up the night sky. For nearly 2000 years the early colours were produced were yellows and oranges. It was only in the nineteenth century that the technology was developed that could produce reds, greens and blues to firework displays. In the meanwhile European rulers widely used displays of fireworks to “enchant their subjects and illuminate their castles on important occasions.”    

Early settlers to The New World carried with them their love of fireworks as they settled into what became the United States of America. Fireworks displays were part of the very first American Independence Day. Even today the Fourth of July fireworks tradition remains an integral part of the celebrations.

Today firework displays are a part of celebrations in almost every country and culture across the world. What appears to be a dazzle of colour, light and sound is in fact, a precise packaging of chemistry and engineering. Each modern firework consists of a tube that contains gunpowder (called an aerial shell), and dozens of small pods about 3-4 cm in diameter (each called a star). These stars hold a combination of fuel, an oxidizing agent, a binder, and metal salts or metal oxides for colour.

A firework also has a fuse that is lit to ignite the gunpowder. Each star makes one dot in the fireworks explosion. When the colorants are heated, their atoms absorb energy and then produce light as they lose excess energy. Different chemicals produce different amounts of energy, creating different colours. For example: Blues are made with copper-chloride compounds. Reds are made with strontium salts, strontium carbonate and lithium salts. Purple is made with a mix of blue-producing copper compounds and red-producing strontium compounds. Orange is created with calcium salts and calcium chloride. Green is made with barium chloride and other barium compounds. 

From alchemy to chemistry, the dazzle and fascination of pyrotechnics has travelled across centuries and continents to become a symbol of celebration. In India, despite concerns of the adverse impacts of the noise and smoke on health and the environment, and in spite of legal restrictions, crackers are getting louder and smokier, even as the sparkling lights in the night sky take our breath away. As the reverberations of the New Year fireworks linger in the air, the wedding season lies ahead, and also cricket matches and other celebrations that ensure that the crackle never fades.   

–Mamata

It’s Still Christmas!

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We are somewhere in the first quarter of the Twelvetide—the 12 days following Christmas. In the old days, December 25 was only the beginning of Christmas which started on that day, and went on till January 6th, which was considered by some to be more important than Christmas day itself! The 12 days mark the journey of the Magi, the three wise men, who set out to see the Baby Jesus on seeing the star, and ends at the feast of Epiphany, on Jan 6th, when they actually met Him.

The Christmas song ‘The Twelve Days of Christmas’ has always intrigued me as I could never make head or tail of the strange array of gifts given on each day. And I am sure that many others are confused as well. But things started falling into place after I realized that each gift was symbolic of something in Christian belief or ritual, and is linked to Twelvetide. And what exactly are these gifts?

On the first day, someone’s true love gives her a partridge in a pear tree. Apparently, this symbolizes Jesus Christ himself.

12 days of Christmas

The second day brings a gift of 2 turtle doves—which stand for the Old and New Testaments.

The 3 French hens of Day 3 are the virtues of faith, hope and charity.

Particularly confusing are the gifts of the fourth day—viz, 4 calling birds. What on earth are calling birds? Well, opinion is divided. They could be blackbirds or starlings or crows! But the number 4 stands for the 4 gospels.

The 5 golden rings of the fifth day are a more conventional gift and stand of the five books of the Old Testament.

6 geese-a-laying symbolize the 6 days of creation, and this, in some weird way, seems to make some sense!

The day after that brings 7 swans-a-swimming. These stand for the seven sacraments recognized by the Catholic Church —Baptism, Eucharist, Confirmation, Reconciliation, Anointing of the sick, Marriage and Holy orders.

The intriguing 8 maids-a-milking symbolize the eight beatitudes or the sacred blessings which mark the opening of the Sermon on the Mount.

Continuing with pretty ladies, the next day brings 9 ladies dancing, which are the nine fruits of the Holy Spirit, namely love, joy, peace, forbearance, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness and self-control.

The nimbleness of the ladies is matched by 10 lords-a-leaping who come along on the tenth day. These symbolize the Ten Commandments.

The 11th day brings along accompaniments for the dancers and prancers in the shape of 11 pipers piping, who represent the 11 faithful apostles. I do feel the pipers could have come ahead of the ladies dancing.

And the last noisy day brings along 12 drummers drumming—symbolizing the 12 points of the apostle’s, i.e., the 12 points of faith that Christians believe in.

This carol was first published in 1780, but is believed to be much older.

Someone has gone to the trouble of calculating the cost of these gifts and has estimated the total for 2022 at a whopping $45,523.27. And this is when each gift is counted only once (i.e., assuming that the second day brings only the 2 turtle doves, and not another partridge in a pear tree).

Here is to the continuing spirit of Christmas—peace and joy to all our fellow-people!

–Meena

Santa the Traveller

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Tis the season to be jolly, and the jollity is best symbolized by the iconic Santa Claus. As Meena wrote this week, the legend of Santa dates back to fourth century AD. A bishop named Nicholas, in what is now modern-day Turkey, became known for his kindness and generosity to the deprived and needy. He was later canonised, and St Nicholas became one of the most popular saints in Christianity. He also became the patron saint of many European countries. Every year he was honoured during the Feast of Sint Nicholas where parents would leave gifts for their children who believed that he had paid them a visit during the night. The Dutch version of the saint rode a donkey and wore a tall pointy Bishop’s hat. On St. Nicholas Day a person dressed up as the saint went from house to house with a servant, either rewarding or punishing children depending on the work they had done. The good students got a gift meant to resemble a sack of gold, while the bad ones got lumps of coal.

The story of St Nicholas evolved over the years, with local embellishments, in different countries of Europe. In some parts of 16th and 17th century Europe, St. Nicholas was depicted as someone who handed out apples, nuts and baked goods, symbols of a bountiful harvest. In France and England, books became the gift of choice as more people became literate.  Gradually, small jewellery, wine and luxury foods became gifts of choice as well.

There were similar figures and Christmas traditions in many parts of Europe. Christkind or Kris Kringle meaning ‘Christ Child’, an angel like figure who often accompanied St. Nicholas was believed to deliver presents to well-behaved Swiss and German children. In Scandinavia, a jolly elf named Jultomten was thought to deliver gifts in a sleigh drawn by goats. English legend explains that Father Christmas visits each home on Christmas Eve to fill children’s stockings with holiday treats. Père Noël is responsible for filling the shoes of French children. In Italy, there is a story of a woman called La Befana, a kindly witch who rides a broomstick down the chimneys of Italian homes to deliver toys into the stockings of lucky children.

It is only in 1664 that the legend of Saint Nicholas crossed the Atlantic, to the Dutch settlement of New Amsterdam, what is today New York City. For the next 200 years the legend of Sint Nikolas or Sinter Klaas (in adaptation) was preserved and protected by the Dutch settlers in America, along with his tradition of giving gifts.

In 1822 a poem, inspired by the Dutch legend, and originally titled A Visit From St Nicholas was published, which provided a more graphic description, (adapted to the new country and culture) of Santa Claus. The adaptation also included the pronunciation of the name in the New York accent, where Sinter Claus became Santa Claus. This poem by Clement Clark Moore, retitled as The Night Before Christmas became a classic. It is upon this, that the image of Santa as we know him today became firmly established.

To promote the tradition of gift giving, stores in America began to advertise Christmas shopping in 1820, and by the 1840s, newspapers were creating separate sections for holiday advertisements, which often featured images of the newly-popular Santa Claus. They also added to the attraction by introducing “live” Santas who would meet children and encourage them to share their “wish list’ for presents.  

Santa thus found a new identity in America. In 1863 a young artist Thomas Nast was commissioned to draw a picture of Santa Claus bringing gifts to the troops fighting in the American Civil War. He drew upon Clement’s description to depict a roly-poly, white bearded, cheerful figure in red clothes, to boost the troop morale.

Perhaps the large-scale commercialization of Santa as a ‘sales agent’ began in the 1920s with Coca Cola first using the red clad Nast figure to advertise Coke. In 1931 the company commissioned an advertising agency to create special Christmas sales campaigns using the Santa image. Santa was the key figure in Coca Cola advertising up to 1964. He appeared in magazines, on billboards, and shop counters, encouraging Americans to see Coke as the solution to “a thirst for all seasons.” By the 1950s Santa Claus became a popular endorser of a wide range of consumer products.

Today Santa Claus has once more crossed the Atlantic to become a global icon of contemporary commercial culture. St. Nicolas has indeed travelled a long way from being a kindly benefactor of the needy, to the ubiquitous jolly Santa Claus selling every dream and product imaginable—while the promoters jingle all the way to the bank.

This is a good time to remind ourselves that Christmas is a season of giving, before it became a season of acquiring and owning more and more. Merry Christmas and warm greetings of the festive season.

–Mamata

‘Tis the Season to Rejoice. And Make Santas!

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With a 5-year old to entertain, I am always looking for suitable activities. And Christmas brings not only joy but a host of Santa crafts too. Like Ganesh, Santa lends himself to being rendered in paper, board, foil, plastacine, with balloons, with cotton wool….you name it. The ability to cut out circle-ish shapes is the main criterion for being able to undertake Santa-crafts. My house is currently filled with good, bad and indifferent renditions of Santa!

Santa

As a corollary, I was curious to learn about Santa sculptures. I did not recall seeing any statues of this beloved character. And they seem to be surprisingly few in number—or at least, they don’t seem to be well documented.

But there is one very well-known sculpture—famous in some eyes, infamous in others!

This is the piece by the American artist Paul McCarthy. Always controversial, McCarthy works in several media—performance, sculpture, painting, installation and ‘painting in action’. He is an analyst and commenter on mass media, consumerism, contemporary society and the hypocrisy, double standards and repression of American society. His objective is to showcase everyday activities and the mess they create.

In 2001, the city of Rotterdam commissioned McCarthy to create a Santa to be placed at the prominent Schouwburgplein square near De Doelen, the city’s orchestra building. He was paid 180,000 euros, a very reasonable amount for a large sculpture by such a prominent artist.

McCarthy delivered the bronze sculpture—and controversy started. Santa was supposedly holding a pine tree in his hand. But many saw the object in his hand as having sexual overtones, and the statue gained the nickname of Butt Plug Gnome.

There were protests by the people of Rotterdam who refused to allow the sculpture to be installed in Schouwburgplein. City officials then tried to install it in Rotterdam’s main shopping street, but this plan also met with resistance. It was four years before McCarthy’s sculpture was set up and unveiled in the city’s Museum Park. It stayed at that spot for three years. However, thanks to general discontent about its highly-visible location, it was moved to a less prominent location within the Museum Park itself.

It was only on November 28, 2008 that the sculpture, which was intended by the artist to critique the consumer culture that surrounds Christmas,  and  is supposed to depict the king of instant satisfaction, symbol of consumer enjoyment, found a permanent home in the Eendrachtsplein Square in Rotterdam.

Another well-known statue of Santa which again has a complicated story is in Turkey. The original Santa was St. Nicholas who was born in 270 AD, in Patara, a small town in Antalya province in modern-day Turkey. He accepted the Christian faith and became the bishop of the nearby town of Demre. The story goes that he used to be so upset by poverty and unhappiness that he used all his wealth to combat it. He dropped bags gold coins down chimneys and gave nuts and fruit to good children, and often helped to look after the sick and elderly—one can see the linkages with activities associated with present-day Santa. Various generations of Santa statues stood in Demre for many years.  But in 2008, the then-standing statue was removed during some construction work by city officials, and has not been replaced despite protests. Authorities say they will re-install the statue when they find an appropriate spot for it!

Nearer home, there are less controversial, though also less permanent Santas. India’s well-known sand artist Sudharshan Patnaik has made sand sculptures of the beloved figure for the holiday season over the last few years.  Last year he created a giant 1.5 tonnes , 60-feet wide sand-and-tomato Santa Claus on Gopalpur Beach. Before this, during Covid in December 2020, he created a giant three-dimensional sand installation of two Santas holding a mask, carrying the message of wearing masks.

May this holiday season bring peace, health and happiness to all!

Meena